Real Color Wheel Color Course for Painting on Location

Here below, are 28 topic links before the full index. Look them all over to see the contents offered.

-- ALOHA TO ARTISTS --

-- B/C TO PRESENT, THE HISTORY AND MAKING OF COLOR AND PAINT, ALL MEDIUMS --

-- PAINTING SUPPORTS AND ALL MEDIUMS EXPLAINED --

-- ROCKS, MINERALS AND ORES OF COLOR --

-- B/C MINING --

-- B/C PALETTE --

-- COLOR IN ELEMENTS AND CRYSTAL --

-- CRYSTAL ELEMENT-TO-COLOR-CHART --

-- MEASURING COLOR IN RAINBOWS, PRISMS AND LIGHT--

-- THE REAL COLORING WHEEL --

-- SUBTRACTIVE PIGMENT COLORS --

-- ARTISTS, COLOR, THEORY, TECHNIQUE-AND-PIGMENTS THROUGHOUT TIME --

-- ARTISTS USING NEW PAINTING PIGMENTS, DATED COLOR THEORIES --

-- HUMAN PROPORTIONS --

-- DRAWING AND PAINTING CHAPTERS--

-- TERMS AND DEFINITIONS --

-- MODERN SUPPORTS, BRUSHES --

-- ACCURACY OF LINE, PLACING THE IMAGE --

-- LINEAL TRIANGULATION --

-- PERSPECTIVE, FOUR VANISHING POINTS --

-- REFLECTIONS, RULE OF EDGES, GRIDS --

-- CONCENTRIC RINGS OF AERIAL PERSPECTIVE --

-- CONVERSION OF LIGHT TO PIGMENTS --

-- PIGMENTS IN OIL --

-- MAKING MEDIUMS --

-- PAINTING SUNLIGHT AND WATER --

-- BRUSH STROKES AND PAINTING TECHNIQUES --

-- COMPUTER COLORING PICTURES --

-- HOW TO USE THE REAL COLOR WHEEL --

THINNERS AND ADDITIVES TO MEDIUMS  12
--- NATURAL EMULSIONS  13
--- OTHER MIXED EMULSIONS  13
--- SYNTHETIC MEDIUMS  14
--- CATALYST AGENTS  15
--- ALUM  15
--- AMMONIA  15
--- BORAX  15
--- FORMALDEHYDE  15

WATER BASED MEDIUMS AND GLUES  16
--- [5] WATER BASED MEDIUM, EGG AND EGG TEMPERA  18
--- EGG TEMPERA  18
--- OIL OVER EGG TEMPERA  18
--- LIME FRESCO  19

MEDIUMS, TURPENTINE AND OIL  23
--- WAX MEDIUMS 26
--- AMMONIA AND WAX  26

CASEIN TEMPERA EMULSION  29

MEDIUMS. ALCOHOL-BASED  30
--- SANDARAC or SANDRACCA  30
--- STICK-LAC  31
--- LACQUER  32
--- LAC AND DYES  32
--- TRANSPARENT COLORS  32
--- TRANSPARENT CHEMICAL PALETTE  32
--- COLOR CARPET MATERIALS  33

SEA MINERALS AND ROCK  35
--- SANDSTONE  35
--- QUARTZITE  35
--- LIMESTONE  36
--- MARBLE  36
--- GYPSUM  36
--- HORNFELS  36
--- DIATOMITE  36
--- FLUORITE  37
--- BARITE  37a
--- CELESTITE  37b
--- HALITE  37c

LAKE MINERALS  37d
--- BORAX  37e
--- TRONA  37f
--- SODALITE  37g
--- SULFUR  38
--- CEMENT  39

ORES OF COLOR  40
--- ANTIMONY  40
--- ARSENIC  40
--- COPPER  40
--- IRON  41
--- LEAD  42
--- MERCURY  43
--- TIN  43
--- ZINC  43

COLOR IN CRYSTALS INDEX.  57
--- CRYSTAL TERMS  58
--- STANDARD COLOR IN ORE AND MINERAL GLOSSARY TERMS  59
--- CRYSTAL ORE AND MINERAL CHEMISTRY, DEFINITIONS  60
--- COLOR WHEEL IN ELEMENTS AND CRYSTALS  64
--- CRYSTALS, LIGHT AND COLOR TERMS  66

CRYSTAL_CHROMATE-ELEMENTS, COLOR PRODUCING 68
--- NAME, ELEMENT, SYM NUMBER, S/G (Specific Gravity), DESCRIPTION  69
--- MINERALS AND ELEMENTS IN COLOR CRYSTAL COMPOUNDS  73

---- 00, DIAMOND - CARBON  73
---- 01, LIDDICOATITE the magenta-green opposition  73

1-MILLION-B/C-PLEISTOCENE-PERIOD: "The Great Ice Age," is still continuing today. Pine trees developed, and weapons and tools were polished. There were one-hundred-twenty-five-thousand people on earth at this time, according to the Geochronometric Lab at Yale University.

100,000 B/C MESOLITHIC PERIOD: Cro-Magnon Man until 10,000 B/C.

50,000 B/C Jinmium, Australia: Monoliths were engraved with petroglyphs of dots, like found on Maui, and a kangaroo.

40,000 B/C Flint was being mined in Egypt and France. Here is more information. http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/s/stoneage.html

30,000 B/C Paleolithic Culture: Thirty-six-billion people lived in Europe and Africa in the course of the Old Stone Age.

20,000 B/C OLD STONE AGE: The earliest known artwork in Europe is located in the caves of Western Africa and Europe.

16,000 B/C The first paint medium was animal fat. The first support was the rock and mud of secluded caves. Painting tools included their fingers, scribing sticks, blending and painting brushes, and the first airbrush, a hollow reed to blow paint on the wall.

AURIGNACIAN ART: In a cave in Northern Spain, the outline of an elephant was found. The most important caves were found in the Franco-Cantarbrian and Spanish Levantine area. Small carvings were always found deep in the floors of these caves. Paintings were done with mineral oxides, ochers of red, brown and yellow, plus charred-bone black.

Altamira, Font-de-Gaume and Lascaux represent the greatest achievements of Paleolithic Art, done by Cro-Magnon Man. Pine trees provided the next medium used, boiling the sap without pressure made distilled turpentine, while boiling the pine nuts made oil. A native tree of Africa made an alcohol-based paint, and a native tree of France made a turpentine based paint. The alcohol based paint of Morocco, sandracca, was harder. It used a distilled nearby shrub as a thinner, and it came first.

10,000 B/C HOLOCENE PERIOD: Paleolithic man and Mesolithic man, were farmers and house builders.

8000 B/C NEOLITHIC PERIOD: Man was raising stock, working metal and making clay pottery.

8000 B/C CHINA: Man had domesticated dogs, goats and pigs.

7000 B/C AEGEAN and CRETE: The tides of the Mediterranean Sea circled the island of Crete. This brought travelers.

7000 B/C THAILAND:

6000 B/C TURKEY: [Catal Huyuk Culture]

6000 B/C ANATOLIA: Was an ancient Pre-Greek culture.

5000 B/C EGYPT: The Upper Nile people had pottery, bas-relief murals on plaster and water based paint.

4000 B/C MINOA: This culture was just starting on Crete.

4000 B/C INDUS RIVER: Tribes were gathering here.

4000 B/C TIGRIS EUPHRATES RIVERS: In Mesopotamia, cultures were forming in the Fertile Crescent.

3000 B/C RUSSIA:

3000 B/C ETRURIA: Their highest art period was in 500 B/C.

2000 B/C HELLENIC GREECE:

1500 B/C STONEHENGE ENGLAND:

1300 B/C MYCENAEN AGE: Knossos, Crete ruled the known world.

600 B/C ETRURIA: Their highest art period was in 500 B/C.

500 B/C ROME:

4000 B/C: Boiled tree-sap, called pitch, was distilled into turpentine as a paint thinner for the resin paints. Also, alcohol was fermented as a drink and as a thinner for alcohol-based paints, made from another tree-sap. There was a third type of fruit tree-sap that made a water based paint, all three were known and used throughout the Mediterranean Sea area.

Clay, with its high silica content was distinguished from mud and pottery when it was fired, melting the silica. The firing divisions of silica according to heat intensity are:

DRY = leather hard was not heated.

EARTHENWARE = heated red-hot, 500°.

STONEWARE = was heated over 1800°, copper cyan colored frit glaze was heated 1500° to 2600° in Egypt.

PORCELAIN = heated 3000°. China was first to do this.

Egypt's first Kingdom reigned. Their mastaba-shaped tombs were positioned as a compass, and like all later pyramids, the tombs-entrances faced north.

They used watercolors and lime paint with tin-based colors. They made plaster by heating limestone or gypsum to 25,000º to 30,000º; adding alum made a harder cement.

3000 B/C: The Third and Forth Dynasties had their Capitol in Memphis. They had developed into the "high-art" stage, and were pouring perfectly life-like gold sculptures.

2700 B/C: The Pyramids of Gizeh were limestone, cut with bronze metal saws, joined without mortar. This limestone powder is chalk or calcium carbonate. Gypsum is different, it's hydrated calcium sulfate, a light spar. Low heated gypsum or lime make plaster of Paris. The pure limestone crystal is the softer of the two. Calcine them and they both make dry cement. Gypsum makes a harder more waterproof cement because of the sulfur, silicone clay and alumina, that effects poorly some color elements such as tin and lead.

The current history books say that everything was built with mud poured into forms with chopped fibers added. I think this mud they used made plaster and it was from the unheated dust of cut limestone used in the pyramids. Heat lime powder and it becomes caustic and ultra absorbent and is used for mural supports because it does not contain sulfur. Lime mortar has to be wet once, dried and crushed again as the first wetting is too caustic to work with. The best fresco mortar is slaked (kept wet) under running water for up to 20 years.
Calcined gypsum powder is stronger and with the included sulfur, alumina and silicone, it makes cement.

Expanded it with water, molded and let it dry and the lime crystals form a bond that keeps getting harder as the crystals slowly shrink until it finally turns to dust. If either of them were not heated and skim milk were added it would make chalk-plaster. Milk casein would make a stronger chalk. My opinion is they used both lime for murals and gypsum for buildings, both with hemp fibers added. The flooding of the Nile removed all traces of the cement or plaster or mud buildings.

Red Pozzuoli found around Naples is a natural cement and when used in murals as a paint imparts the red-oxide color.

The base-to-height ratio of the pyramids of Gizeh are eleven to seven. It took ten thousand men working twenty years to build one. It was finished with a covering of polished white limestone that the Romans later removed for their own buildings. (I can't find the proof, but I think the top quarter was sheathed in gold leaf.) Copper, at that time was more valuable than gold, and they did have all the gold :)
Later Sumerian ziggurats would be banded with tiled color, the top tier was gold and could be seen for 20 miles on the flat dessert. I think they saw the golden tops of the great pyramids.

In the Temple of the Sphinx, a life-sized figure of Pharoah Khafra was carved in diorite. It was carved with perfect realism in the "high-art" style.

2500 B/C: "The Seated Scribe" twenty-one inches high, was carved in limestone and painted, by a slightly lesser artist. There was trouble in the air: the Semitic Assyrians were rising in power.

In Morocco, Africa, resins continued to be developed based on turpentine and alcohol, sandarac (sandracca) resin, pine-seed oil, castor oil and oil of spike were developed.

Lead was mined here, to make the first protective seaworthy paint. Lead pigments containing sulfur would not mix with tin-based colors. Thus the Paint Wars began... Heating galena, the lead ore, leaves behind the sulfur-lead pigment white lead, which can be heated higher into yellow, orange, red and brown lead colors. These all dry fast, red lead drying fastest. Tin was Egypt's choice of metal pigment and the two would not mix.

Mastic resins from pine trees in Spain and France made distilled turpentine and pitch-resin paints. Their pigments of the time were the native iron oxides deposited in clay, together with the lead colors. Egypt and China had larger selections. It's hard to tell who had the first vermillion, France or China, probably China, since they were more into mining.

Stick-lac was cultivated in India from the lacquer-secreting insects, which deposited their lacquer on trees. Their nests were made of wax, which was also used for Indian textiles. Tree-saps and plants were also cultivated for use in alcohol-based colors on cotton, hemp, linen, felt and wool products.

Egg and casein mediums, from domestic farm animals were used in the Baltic Sea area. Eventually,  linseed oil would be used here as a painting medium, before anyone else. 

1800 B/C- Minoa was a Pre-Greek Aegean Sea culture, that followed Egyptian art, and significantly advanced architecture. Homer said there were ninety cities on Crete. The Temple of Cnossus was three or four stories high, with drainage piping and flush toilets.

1500 B/C: The Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt founded the city of Ammonium, two-hundred miles east of Memphis. Here was the world's only supply of ammonia, from the remains of a long-extinct mollusk. A shrine was made there to their god, Ammon. Ammonia made wax and oil water-soluble, Wax soap paints were developed, which dried insoluble to water. The Egyptians loved paint; it must have been a colorful empire.

1400 B/C: Babylonia had trees and not much rock for building. Their tile art decorated the mud and clay brick structures. One tile that was found that I know of was colored Naples Yellow.

1300 B/C: Hypostyle Hall, the Temple of Amen Ra in Karnak, Egypt was completely decorated with wax-based paint, as was everything Egyptian. There were gold stars on the blue ceiling. The temple was of simple and massive, grand style, with beautiful columns.

1257 B/C: The Temple of Rameses II at Abu Simbel, Egypt, [now drowned behind the Aswan High Dam] was also massive at 119'x65', stiff, and meant to impress. Their period of "high-art" had clearly passed.

1100 B/C: The Greeks were entering the Peloponnesus, a large peninsula and region in southern Greece. This started the First Dark Age period which would last until 500 B/C, and ending with Doric architecture. The Doric Tribes were one of the three invading Peloponnesus at that time. Homer's alive and writing.

1000 B/C During this Dark Age 40 cities were built underground down to 870",10 levels down. The largest city found is Derinkuyu Yeralti Sehri. The underground nation is in Kapidokia, Kapadokeya, Turkey.

800 B/C: A Sumerian Palace of Sargon, in Khorsabad, had a ziggurat temple on top. The glazed-tile facade went from white at the base, through black, scarlet, blue, orange and silver, with gold at the top. It could be seen for twenty miles in any direction. THESE MESOPOTAMIAN BUILDERS INVENTED THE TRUE DOME. Vaulted chambers were covered with great tapestries, and floors were covered with great rugs-- this was their art. Painting was neglected, but they furthered the arts of astronomy and writing. They invented cuneiform, a wedge-shaped alphabet that is the basis of all Western writing.

700 B/C: The Etruscans were using turpentine, mastic, egg, wax soap, wax encaustic, and sandarac (sandracca) as their painting mediums.

400 B/C: The Greek Theophrastus, described refining clay pigments by settling them in water.

200 B/C: Roman sculpture had achieved "high-art" standards as in the sculpture Dying Gaul.

The chronological date list will continue later. Continue now.

ROCK AND MUD: Walls were the first painting supports. These mural paintings still exist today after twenty thousand years of protection deep inside ancient caves in India and France.

PAPYRUS: Papyrus is soaked, pressed and dried as strips of pith. it's a member of the sedge family. Papyrus was once abundant in Egypt and used by the Greeks and Romans as paper.

PAPER: Paper is also made of wood, cotton and linen. Linen is best, but cotton will do. Cotton paper is called rag 100%. The paper is glued throughout with an animal size. This is called vat sizing, and it is to be preferred. The papers I've found best are; a new paper hand-made called Twinrocker, Whatman, Strathmore, Lanaquarelle, Fabriano, Winsor & Newton, D'Arches and Waterford. They are all pH-neutral, vat and surface sized.

WOOD: Wood is a classic support. Today a good grade of plywood or hard pressed masonite will do. Use 1/8 in. or 1/4 in. mahogany or birch for pictures up to 22 x 30 in. and 1/4 in. for pictures up to 3 x 4 foot. Larger panels should be braced from the rear.

FLAX LINEN: Linen makes the best and strongest canvas. Today we have no hemp canvas, but it is making a come back. It used to be the strongest and best. It was wovan with a harring-bone weave.

COTTON: This canvas can be used as a support, up to 3 x 4 ft.

SAILCLOTH: Cotton sailcloth makes an excellent canvas.

HANDKERCHIEF OR AEROPLANE LINEN: This linen is good for small work and can be glued to wood for larger works

POLYESTER: This probably will outlast any other cloth, except Kevlar and Tyvek :)

ANIMAL: The best animal glue is rabbit skin glue, but don't boil it. Casein is good if you use a stiff support, casein is skim-milk curd that dissolves in ammonia.

ACRYLIC: Acrylic Gel is a good adhesive medium for grounds and acrylic painting.

VEGETABLE RYE: This paste is an adhesive. Add ten percent alum [by weight] to the glue to make it insoluble in water for tempera or, better still, add one percent of formaldehyde which is an anti-fungicide also. A layer of whole egg will improve a ground by isolating it from the paint.

CHALK- Chalk is calcium carbonate, marble dust, neutralized lime or neutralized gypsum plaster of Paris. Make it by adding water, drying it, adding more water and drying it again and again until it's neutral to the tongue. A small quantity of skim milk is good in chalk grounds.

GYPSUM- Hydrated calcium sulfate, is light spar. It is dense and can be applied with a wide putty knife, that's the best way to apply a ground. Heated gypsum makes plaster of Paris.

KAOLIN CLAY- Kaolin is decomposed feldspar. As it retains moisture too long, chalk is better.

BARYTA WHITE- This is a heavy spar with very little coloring power. Usually it's a pigment additive. Barite is crystal of barium sulfate, called heavy spar. Barite is a non-metallic mineral crystal mined in England, filling the cavities in limestone. Like barium it's an extender in lead-based and cadmium-based paints.

TESTING THE GROUND- A good priming ground will not crackle when pressed from behind, oil should not change its color, and the ground should have an even sheen to it.

BODY COLOR FOR GROUNDS- Titanium plus zinc white mixed are best but not as opaque as lead plus zinc. Apply the mixture to a dry, small to medium, lightly stretched canvas support without soaking through it. Pre-sizing will save time and money. Applying the ground with a spatula is always the best way to go. Larger size canvases should stretched flat and primed flat, off the stretcher bars. Dampining the back with a mist of water will tighten loose canvas.

GLAZING THE GROUND- This method is called imprimatura, it reduces the absorbing quality of the ground. The Renaissance used this method as the middle tones of the picture, using the colors red, yellow and green earth, green earth was especially good because it was so transparent.

SOLID COLOR GROUND- Bolus grounds were toned red, brown or gray, as Rubins, Van dyck and Rembrandt used. Egg tempera, lead or zinc white, was the first color down on the colored ground; it was like laying out a painting on a blackboard with chalk. Glazes colored the painting and egg tempera white highlights were put in last. 

ISOLATING-MEDIUMS - Mediums that don't mix or disturb the current painting medium, like damar and turpentine over tempera or egg over oil or shellac and alcohol lac over either. Theophilus Presbyter, in the 12th century, recommended cherry gum as a medium and at the same time as an intermediate layer for oil glazes. Collectively, fruit tree gums were called "cerasin".

WATER: Dilutes or thins; gum, glue, paste, egg, casein, lime, acrylics, wax-soap and water varnish.

TURPENTINE: Thins oil, alkali, alkyd oil, resin, balsam and wax; I don't use petroleum thinner or paraffin wax for painting. Oil of turpentine absorbs oxygen while drying, mineral spirts only evaporate, and petroleum will not dissolve damar. Damar is our friend... we need it. The new alkyd paints don't use turpentine as a base.

ALCOHOL: Thins shellac, stick-lac and sandarac (sandracca), "the spirit of wine" paints. Of the two types, de natured grain [ethyl], and wood [methyl], methyl is the more powerful solvent.

SPIKE: Thins spirit paints. Spike is made from the ancient Mediterranean scrub plant found around Morocco, today it's called the Lavender Plant, "Lavendula Spica".

SPIKENARD: Thins spirit paints. Spike-nerd or Oil of Cajuput, is the ancient East Indian "Nardostachys" plant.

CASTOR OIL: Dissolves spirit paints and makes them flexible. It is nondrying in its mass state. Castor oil comes from the seeds of the "ricinus communes" plant. The seed is poisonious

AMMONIA: Thins wax-soap, casein and water-varnish. Ammonia water was called the "spirits of hartshorn".

EGG: Egg's emulsion balance can be changed by mixing it with either more water or oil.

CASEIN: Casein will emulsify with balsams, mastics or any water-based paint or emulsion, oil will emulsify with casein but turns yellow in time.

GUM: Gum will emulsify with balsam, mastic, wax-soap, and oil.

PASTE: Paste will emulsify with balsam, mastic, wax-soap, and oil.

GLUE: Animal glues emulsify with balsam, mastic, wax-soap, and emulsify very well with oil.

WAX-SOAP: Wax-soap emulsifies with all of the above... the Byzantines added gum... and Reynolds liked to add Venetian turpentine. I think it's great by itself. I did a test on glass with a palette knife -- the paint was 3/8" thick and dried insoluble to water in one week. Try that with oil paint. The only problem I saw was that it could be scratched with my finger nail. Wax is pliable, but balsam or resin make it harder. I added poppy oil to a batch in a humid area, [Nahiku, Maui] and it stayed wet for two weeks. Gum didn't do any better.

There is a medium I couldn't find any reference to, and it seems a natural. Indian artists would have used it in their paintings, because they had all the raw materials -- the cultivated stick-lac insect with the wax nest, and an alkali, borax from Tibet. The two will mix together and form a water-based emulsion, as adding ammonia to shellac it will make a water-based varnish.

Synthetic paints were born in 1900. Germany made the first acrylic paints and we got them in 1930. Plexiglas is solid acrylic. Water based acrylics are made by polymerizing the acrylic monomer by emulsification. These are great paints that dry insoluble to water. Smooth blends are easily made with thin washes over dried paint. Mistakes are corrected by over painting with white, twice, before repainting. This must be done because the new acrylic colors are not very opaque and show under colors. Pencil lines will also show through. It is better to draw with a non-waxy chalk and brush off the residue with a feather duster. Then, paint in the outlines with a light ultramarine blue, or yellow where appropriate. Remember, the outline belongs to the object behind. Contrast of color and value separate the objects, not their outlines.

Alkyd resins are polyhydric alcohol with polybasic acid. These alkyd modified resins dry faster than natural oils. Turpentine based "Liquin" is an alkyd resin. They mix well with normal oil paints and speed drying.

These catalyst agents cause a chemical change within, when added to a different substance.

Alum is a double sulfate of aluminum and potassium. It's used to temper dried paints and grounds, making them insoluble to water, but not impervious. It will act as a mordant to set dyes and harden plaster like cement. Brown beeswax can be whitened by boiling it in alum water.

Ammonia is a suffocating pungent gas, compounding nitrogen and hydrogen, soluble in water. Ammonia is an alkaloid compound that transforms shellac and wax, making them water-soluble. When the gas escapes the dried ammonia they again become insoluble, as in cera colla painting.

Borax, like alum, is an alkali. In ancient day's it was called "tin-cal", a Chinese word. Borax is found in landlocked lakes in Tibet and in the Dead Sea. It was gathered to be used in India as a textile mordant, and in Egypt as a flux ingredient to make frit, an isolated copper pigment in glass. It was also used to make a water varnish from stick-lac. The alcohol-based tree-sap pigments could also be made water soluble in a borax solution.
There is more data in "LAKE-MINERALS"

Formaldehyde is a gas, usually sold in a forty percent solution of water, called formalin. It hardens proteins like rabbit-skin glue and stops mold and fungus. It's also used as a preservative.
 
 

Gums are hygroscopic, they will always absorb water unless it's tempered with alum or a 4% solution of formalin; formalin is a 37% solution of formaldehyde available at your drugstore, sometimes :)

Gums will emulsify with oil, balsams and resins. They are more painterly than egg emulsions alone. Here's a good recipe for a gum emulsion, 5 parts gum, 1 part stand oil or sun thickened linseed oil, 1 part damar resin and 1 part glycerin. The glycerin will improve the brush quality and act as the preservative.

ARABIC Gum acacia - the best is from Africa.

SENEGAL French, it's the hardest gum and best for water colors.

KORDOFAN An ancient gum from Sudan.

CHERRY One of the many fruit tree gums, almond, fig, peach, apricot, plum, they are all similar and mix well with egg and casein.

TRAGACANTH Comes from the astragalus scrub in Asia-Minor, it's used as the binder for pastels.

SARCOLLA An ancient gum made from the astragalus sarcolla plant of Iran, it's similar to gum arabic and best for gum tempera.

Vegetable glues are starch pastes, rice starch makes the best glues. Others are; potato starch, wheat starch and rye starch, They all can be emulsified with oil, balsams and resin.

Vegetable glues give very bright gouache-like tones and have no effect on pigments. Starches set free by the addition of an alkali like ammonia become insoluble in water when dry.

Vasari and Plenderleith talk of bookbinders' boiled paste.

Glues are used either hot or cold; hide glues are protein, chandrin, which is the adhesive, and glutin, which is the gelatin. Hide glues are used hot; most modern polyvinyl acetate glues are used cold. Glue paintings should be sprayed with a 4 percent solution of formalin to harden it or given a glaze with mastic varnish or better.

GELATIN: Gelatin is an edible glue, made from delicate animal tissues. It contains more glutin, preferably it's used with egg, gum or wax soap.

PARCHMENT: Cooked lamb and goat skin was the support used for miniature paintings.

COLOGNE: Animal leather glues emulsify with fatty oils by adding it to egg or wax-soap; it works better than gums. Cologne glue with kaolin clay cover best.

RABBIT: Rabbit skin glue is the best gesso glue.

BONE: Bone glue is inferior to hide glue.

FISH: Used cold, hide glue is more durable.

GLYCERIN: Has oily properties, is water or alcohol soluble, and will absorb moisture from the air.

Egg yolk contains albumen [water], egg oil [nondrying] and lecithin [emulsifier]. Egg yolk itself is a painting medium, it bleaches white in sunlight. Mix egg yolk and water 1:1 to dry pigment, 1:1:1. Egg, unvarnished looks like gouache, it's a flat finish. Egg and egg emulsions dry hard, elastic and more resistant than oil color mediums by themselves. Oil of cloves, one drop per egg, will preserve a sealed wet egg, kept cool for one year. The icon, painted on wood was the next medium after fresco. In Byzantium, after a ninth-century council had confirmed the defeat of the Iconoclasts and made it safe to paint in the less durable egg, the style spread over Northern Europe and stayed in Russia for eight centuries.

Egg without the addition of oil is called distempera, this was a preferred style from Giotto [1266-1337] to Botticelli [1444-1510], The addition of alum to the egg made it waterproof. Giotto also added cherry gum to make it more fluid, acting as a preservative as it was slightly alkaline. The support was wood or linen primed with gypsum or chalk. The ground had to be kept very clean because the thin medium shows through colors. A poor ground could be improved by a coat of egg and lime white before painting. Sandarac (sandracca) was a good hard, final varnish. Today, damar will do the job.

When egg white is used, it's called glair medium and was used like ink on illuminated manuscripts in the 5th century, and as a size for gold leaf. Egg white and alum make a good bodied paint medium, capable of making very opaque strokes.

TEMPERA'S ARE EMULSIONS, water and oil plus the stabilizer. The first tempera was made about 1000 A/D, first with mastic, then linseed oil. The ratio's went like this; one part egg, one part mastic or oil, OR, two parts egg, one part oil, one part mastic. More egg made it water based, more oil made it oil based. Later sun thickened oils or stand oil were used. Most liked to use Strasbourg turpentine [balsam], today we have to use Venetian or Canadian turpentine because no one imports Strasbourg to the U.S. except http://www.kremer-pigmente.de/

Van Eyck [1390-1441] became very skilled at this technique, painting in water based egg tempera, then glazing with oil and balsam, going back to tempera for details and glazing again, Giovanni Bellini [1430-1516], in his life time went from egg tempera to oil.

LIME is the oxide of calcium [CaO], calcined limestone or quicklime. Limestone and gypsum both make plaster of Paris if heated.

4000 BC
They had watercolors and lime paint using tin based colors, and made plaster by heating limestone for murals and gypsum for building, adding alum made a hard cement. Limestone powder is chalk or calcium carbonate. Gypsum is Hydrated calcium sulfate, a light spar. Heated gypsum makes plaster of Paris also. The limestone crystal the is softer of the two. Calcine them and it they would have made dry cement. Gypsum makes the harder more waterproof cement but has pigment color changing sulfur in it so it's not used for murals.

After slaking lime, remove all the slaked water off of the top. This is clear lime water. The longer you wait the harder the sediment lime compacts it's self, but it will never dry under water. Lime and water don't mix. Lime that has been heated or calcined and had all the water removed from the compound it is very porous. When the grain of lime reaches it's total absorption capability the cell is very close to the weight of water and only the weight of the lime crystal will cause it to precipitate. The lime is heavy compared to the water molecule and it will sink, but slowly. Quicker as time goes on because the lime is contracting As it sinks and compresses with other lime . The lime crystal will dry in the water up to the point of squeezing it out, it takes time. It changes from a thick yogurt after 4 months to like 70 degree F. butter after 24 months.

Two to four month old slaked will not hold any more water and has cast out some water becoming heaver and sinking faster. Slaked lime sinks quickly. Out of the water it could shrink more and faster. Dried lime re-crushed sinks fastest but looses it's bonding power and it's alkalinity. At this point it makes a good white pigment.

Egypt made the first cement, firing their plentiful limestone and adding clean sand. This natural limestone is calcium carbonate. Burning gives off carbonic acid gas or carbon dioxide, leaving caustic lime. Add water and you make slaked lime or calcium hydroxide. This is the mural material, add silica sand or crushed marble or, as the later Italians did, add some volcanic ash. A good grade of volcanic ash came from Pozzuoli, it was light, fine and had rough edges), this will make mortar. Slaking gives off heat and water, the top layer again absorbs carbonic acid gas from the air and forms a film of carbonate of lime, on top of the lime water solution called calcium hydrate.

Limestone that contains clay slakes very slowly. The best lime has been burnt over wood, coal would give off sulfuric acid and make gypsum, that would damage pigments. Lime plus hydraulic clay set too quickly for murals, but would work for dried secco paintings. The best lime has set for two to twenty years, after removing the top layer of crust, the calcium hydrate can be mixed with different proportions of water to form "milk of lime" and "lime wash". Clear "lime water" is made from settled milk of lime and is an excellent medium for fresco. Thin lime paste mixes with skim milk, casein, resin varnish, egg and glue. They are all used in secco painting and in stucco luster, the imitation marble. The "Athos Book" Hermeneia of Dionysius the painter's handbook from Mount Athos Greece [Greek-Byzantine], said to add fibrous materials as oakum, chopped rope, calves hair and straw to prevent cracking. Clay causes cracks in mortar, sand is best, granite powder should be used in the final coat or powdered limestone.

What we call Cement is hydraulic lime, Portland Cement contains 75 percent caustic lime and 25 percent clay, clay contains gypsum and alumina, the addition of sand makes concrete.

GYPSUM is sulphate of lime or hydrated calcium sulphate or light spar, heated, slightly burnt (calcined) gypsum is plaster of Paris. Alabaster is a granular gypsum, and kaolin clay is decomposed light spar. Heated gypsum forms a sulfur dioxide gas and sulfuric acid.

MORTAR is sand and lime mixed 3:1 in the rough coat, 2:1 in the second coat and 1:1 in the last top coat layer called in Italian, intonaco. Marble meal is best in the top coat for a whiter painting surface. A good "secco" ceiling fresco will measure from 1/4" to 1/2" thick, let the final coat set for a day. Then, scrub off the skin of carbonate of lime and apply some lime-wash, paint onto the wet or dry lime-wash with paints ground in skim-milk casein or lime milk. Very fat lime plaster with too much lime, cracks easily. This secco paint may include lime-water, casein, glue or egg. Casein will increase the weather resistance as will egg yolk with alum.

The total thickness to should be about 1 to 1.5 inches thick. Pompeiian walls were 3" thick, and could be painted on for up to two weeks wet, joins went unseen if they were necessary. Here is Doerner's advice on preparing a surface for fresco. On a thoroughly wet wall, apply the roughcast, make it with 3 parts clean dry sand, mixed with one part lime. Throw this on about 1/2 inch thick, the equalizing coat is applied when the roughcast no longer indents with finger pressure or dry. This second coat can be slightly drier than the first, in about the same thickness or less, still using coarse sand. Apply all coats from the bottom up. The third coat is made with 2 parts finer sand and 1 part lime, this coating is thinner, perhaps 3/8's of an inch thick. A last coat is made of 1 part fine sand or marble meal and 1 part lime. Wet and brush this third coat with lime-wash before applying the painting layer 1/8" thick. Work this coat to perfection, two hours per square yard isn't too long. It takes me 1 hour to do 12 square inches.
A good fresco can be painted on only two coats of mortar, a rough coat 1/8's of an inch thick dried and a 1/8th inch thick top coat

Vitruvius described the plaster used by the ancient Pompeiians. Six coats were applied, wet on wet, the last coat was given a mirror polish with a smooth roller, They all totaled to 3" thick, skim milk was added to the pigments for additional gloss.

Colors must be lime-proof, the best white is dried pit lime, wet and dried several times until it tastes neutral, or use litmus paper. This was the "bianco sangiovanni" of Cennini. Naturally this white has no binding power of its own and needs to be applied with egg or casein. Organic madder root could then be mixed in and used because the white was neutral. Yellow's were; Amberg ocher, a bright yellow that's long gone, yellow ocher, Naples yellow and native orpiment. The brown's were carefully washed iron-in-clay pigments, umber's and sienna's both raw and burnt. Red and orange's were realgar, an arsenic pigment like orpiment, magenta was madder root, painted secco with egg or casein, like the blue, lapis lazuli. It's not that lapis lazuli couldn't handle the lye, but because it was such an expensive pigment and who could afford the sinking in properties of fresco.

Other blues were azurite, and light and dark frit. Cobalt native made a rose color, and burning the oxide moved the hue to blue. Green's were copper green frit, malachite and amazonite. Black's were made of carbon or iron oxide, they were applied very early on. Any color could be easily be painted over. The more coats, the more intense the color. One need not be afraid to run over outlines with local color, they can be easily modeled over as the support absorbs color. Highlights with lime cream were added last as shadows are deepened.

Paint only until the plaster stops absorbing and starts setting, The thicker the mortar the longer the working time. Lime water can be painted on to increase the absorbing time and retard the setting time. Paint from light to dark to light, lights can be made from thick lime putty that will over paint any color. A lime-water damp sponge will blend large areas of newly applied color.

If you get lime in your eyes, wash it out with a mixture of sugar and skim milk. Fresco should not be reworked for at least a month, apply the secco with wax-ammonia soap, egg yolk or casein and stipple in the additions. Dolomitic limestone sets slowly but dries hard, shortly after the fresco has set, use a glass roller to bring up a high gloss. DON'T TRY TO DO A FRESCO WITH COMMERCIAL CEMENT BECAUSE IT CONTAINS UNBURNT GYPSUM, SULFUR AND CLAY.

PY150 dioxine nickel complex = Indian Yellow Brn/s. BEST
PY153 dioxine nickel complex = Indian Yellow. BEST
PY153 dioxine nickel complex + PR 260 isoindolin = Indian Yellow Golden. BEST
PY108 anthrapyrimidine = Indian Yellow Brown side.
PY153 dioxine nickel complex + PY3 stable di-arylide = Gamboge PV19 quinacridone = Rose
PR122 quinacridone = Magenta
PV23:1r carbazole dioxazine = Purple
PV23 dioxine nickel complex = Permanent Violet Bluish transparent secondary blue, tints to Ult. Blue.
PB60 anthraquinone = Blue Deep to Turquoise
PB15 copper phthalocyanine = Cyan (Thalo Blue) to Green Y/S, Manganese also makes Cyan.
PB7 chlorinated copper phthalocyanine = Turquoise to Green
PY83 stable di-arylide + PG7 chlorinated copper phthalocyanine = Sap Green Y/S
PY83 stable di-arylide HR + PG7 chlorinated copper phthalocyanine + PO43 perinone orange = Sap Green O/S
PY129 methin copper complex = Green Gold
PY129 azomethine = Genuine Green Gold
PY129 irgazine yellow light, greenish-gold

17-62 Crystal Index
17-63 Crystal Terms
17-64 Ore and Mineral Glossary
18-65-67 Mineral Chemistry Terms and Glossary
18-68-69 Color in Elements and Crystal
19-70-71 Crystal Light and Color Terms
19-72 Crystal Chromate Elements Description
19-73-75 Elements, Symbol, No., Specific Gravity, Description
19-76-77 CRYSTAL MINERAL COMPOUNDS OF COLOR ARE;

SULPHIDES, ARSENIDES, ANTIMONIDES,
1,Liddicoatite, 2,Chalcopyrite, 3,Sphalerite, 4,Cinnabar, 5,Galena
6,Realgar, 7,Orpiment, 8,Stibnite, 9,Pyrite, 10,Prousite, 11,Pyrargyrite
OXIDES, HYDROXIDES, 12, Cuprite, 13, Chrysoberyl, 14, Spinel, 15,Zincite, 15,Zinc
Silicate, 16,Corumdum, 17,Quartz, 18,Opal, 19,Rutile, 20,Anatase, 21,Cassiterite, 22,Hematite, 23,Halite
HALIDES, 24,Fluorite, 25,Cumengeite,
CARBONATES, 26,Malachite 27,Azurite, 28,Calcite, 29,Aragonite, 30,Dolomite, 31,Witherite, 32,Smithsonite, 33, Aurichalcite, 34,Cerussite, 35,Rhodochrosite, 36,Siderite
SILICATES, 37,Dioptase, 38,Chrysocolla, 39, Phenakite, 40,Wollastonite, 41,Diopside, 42,Sphene 43,Zircon, 44,Serandite, 45,Olivine, 46,Kyanite, 47,Spodumene, 48,Leucite, 49,Orthoclase, 50,Beryl, 51,Euclase, 52,Grossular, 53,Labradorite, 54,Spessartine, 55,Almandine, 56,Epidote, 57,Vesuvianite, 58,Apophyllite, 59,Topaz, 6O,Elbaite, 61,Lapis Lazuli,
PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES, 62,Turquoise, 63,Wavellite, 64,Brazilianite, 65,Autunite, 66,Vavianite, 67,Legrandite, 68,Fluorapatite, 69,Pyromorphite, 70,Mimetite, 71,Vanadinite,
SULFATES, 72,Gypsum, 73,Celestine, 74,Barite,
CHROMATES, 75,Crocoite,
MOLYBDATES, 76,Wulfenite,
TUNGSTATES, 77,Scheelite, 78,Wolframite

ALLOCHROMATIC, is an element coloring term meaning an outside element is included in the compound.

ANISOTROPIC, Crystals in which light travels at different velocities in different directions.

AMORPHOUS, without crystalline structure, like the opal or glass.

CLEAVAGE, a breaking point along a face, variable.

CUBIC SYSTEM, four pyramids or tetrahedrites block together and make a cube, this system has the highest symmetry, the triclinic has the lowest. The other systems are Tetragonal, Orthohombic, Trigonal, Hexagonal, and Monoclinic.

HABIT, is the shape of a crystal. There are seven systems, and thirty two classes within the systems.

PARTING, similar to cleavage but along the twinning axis.

PSEUDOMORPHS, A crystal inside a rock may change its chemical composition and still keep its original shape, common to quartz.

FRACTURE, broken.

AGGREGATE, A mineral without an obvious crystal shape, crystals forming masses as gold and silver [dendritic], tree or plant like, or the kidney-shaped hematite[reniform].

COMPOUNDS, Two or more elements form compounds. Oxide compounds are combined with oxygen and a metal element, hydroxides, carbonates, silicates, sulfides, sulfates, arsenides, antimonides, Tungstates, and chromates are all compounds.

CARBONATES, carbon compounds.

GANGUE, other minerals found with the mined ore.

GOSSAN, The "iron hat" of gangue minerals with iron and manganese oxides, the soluble minerals sink lower to form azurite, malachite, and cuprite. Sulfur sinks still lower and forms sulfides like chalcocite.

HALIDES, contain halogens, negative elements, fluorine, chlorine, iodine and astatine.

NATIVE, Uncombined with other elements, natural.

OXIDES, a mineral combined with oxygen as the sole anion. These are usually hard because of close packing.

HYDROXIDES, have the complex anion [OH].

PSEUDOMORPHS, A crystal inside a rock may change its chemical composition and still keep its original shape, common to quartz.

SILICATES, Silicon combined with oxygen, [SiO4].

STREAK, The color left behind from an abraded mineral.

SULFIDES or SULPHIDES, Metallic ores formed in the presence of sulfur and the absence of oxygen, [C0₃]2-.

TENOR, The metal content of an ore.

ATOM, smallest particle of an element with all its properties.

ATOMS, are measured in Nanometers, [1nm = 10m[-]9th].

ATOM CENTER, the nucleus is occupied by protons and neutrons of similar mass. This is the mass of the atom, the volume is made by the cloud of electrons.

PROTONS, have a positive charge, the number of protons equal the atomic number, hydrogen has one proton.

NEUTRONS, have no charge.

ELECTRONS, have a negative charge orbiting the nucleus, electrons and protons are equal in quantity, so there equal in [+-] charges.

ATOMIC NUMBER, the quantity of protons in the nucleus.

ATOMIC WEIGHT, is comparing the atoms of each element to the hydrogen atom.

ISOTOPES, the neutron quantity changes the atomic weight of atoms with similar atomic numbers, so each element has isotopes and different atomic weights, all based on the weight of one carbon isotope.

SHELLS, electrons orbit on seven tracts or shells, lettered K to Q outward from the nucleus. Each shell has a limit to the number of electrons in it, 2 for K, 32 for Q. Hydrogen has one nuclear proton and one electron in K shell, Lithium, with three protons, has a full K shell and one electron in the L shell.

INERT GASES, will not combine with other elements, they have 8 electrons in Q shell, other elements are considered stable if they can attain a similar outer shell content. Atoms trade electrons with other atoms so their electron cloud can become identical with inert gases, the nearest inert gas,

IONS, This trading leads to atoms becoming electrically charged and known as ions, gain an electron, gain a negative charge. Lose an electron and gain a positive charge, remember, electrons are negative.

ANIONS, are negatively charged ions, they have gained one [-] electron.

CATIONS, are positively charged ions, they have lost one [-] electron.

Two atoms are walking down the street and they run into each other. One says to the other, "Are you all right?" "No, I lost an electron!" "Are you sure?" "Yeah, I'm positive!" :-)

VALENCE, the "hook" to hold another "hook", hydrogen has a valence of one, it can hook up with another atom with one valence. Valence is the chemical binding power +/-.

VALENCY, the process of gaining or losing electrons. [Na] sodium, has one more electron than the nearest inert gas, neon [Ne], it's written Na⁺ to show it's a cation. Fluorine [F] has one less and is written F, meaning it's anion. Valency is the number of electrons an atom will gain or lose to attain the configuration of the most similar inert gas.

MONO VALENT, ions Na⁺ and F^- are both charged by one electron off being stable and inert.

DIVALENT, magnesium has two more electrons than neon, the closest inert gas. By losing both it becomes a divalent cation, written Mg²⁺.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE, [C] carbon and [Si] silicon have atomic structures midway between two inert gases. Carbon can either gain four electrons to become C^4- and resemble neon or lose four electrons to become C⁴⁺ resembling helium.

REPULSION, The electrical charge of protons keeps other protons away by mutual repulsion, they have similar spinning directions. When two atoms link, the interaction is by the outermost electrons. There's three ways to do this.

IONIC BONDING, is two elements forming ions of equal and opposite valency, the spare electron of one atom separate to fill a vacancy in the outer shell of another atom. The pair of ions are held together electrically. Groups of ions can be linked this way, a divalent cation can link with two univalent anions.

COVALENT BONDING, shares electrons, two or more atoms coming close together share, and both or all, have eight in their outer shell. Solids containing ionic or covalent bonds are rigid.

METALLIC BOND, metals pack the ions closely together and leave the outermost electrons free to move independently. This lets them be hammered thin, form wire and conduct electricity.

COMPOUNDS. When the linked atoms are of different elements, the result is a chemical compound.

COMPLEX, more than one compound.

COMPLEX IONS. In many minerals, subgroups of atoms are bonded in a covalent way forming complex either ions or radicals, A common example is the tetrahedral arrangement of four oxygen atoms around a single silicon atom, to give a complex anion, written [SiO₄]^4-.

ELECTRICALLY BALANCED COMPOUND, the complex anion [SiO₄]^4-must be bonded to a cation or cations with a total valency of four, to get an electrically balanced compound. Two atoms of the divalent metal Mg would fit and the mineral forsterite has the composition [Mg₂]⁴⁺[SiO₄]^4-, or it could be written Mg₂[Si0₄]^4-.

MOLECULES. Heating a mineral causes the atoms to vibrate faster,breaking the bonds between them. In this way the independent groups in steam, called molecules, move freely. Share electrons, be a molecule.

AMORPHOUS, Substances that do not have the atomic order of crystals are amorphous, they don't have the directional properties of crystal. Opal, natural glass, and flint are amorphous aggregates.

ION SHAPE. Crystals are made up of ions having the shape of spheres, these fit together leaving a space in the center. Three oranges and a pea. The carbonate ion has this shape, a pyramid with three sides and a bottom. The common complex ion [CO₃]^2- is carbonate.

TETRAHEDRON. Four oranges and a grape would make a Tetrahedron, the shape of the silicate anion [SiO₄]^4-.

OCTAHEDRON, is two pyramids joined base to base.

CUBES, have all equal sized ions, four polyhedra pyramids equal a cube, as in coordination polyhedra and close packing.

POLYMORPHS, are the structures possible by a compound, Si02 makes five different structures. Diamond and graphite are polymorphs of carbon, graphite is two dimensional, flat and weak. The diamond is a three dimensional latrahedrally-oriented covalent bond, strong and possibly twinned.

TWINNED, two crystals joined inside, interpenetrating each other.

ISOMORPHOUS minerals with identical crystal structure.

SOLID SOLUTION. Olivine groups of minerals, magnesium [Mg₂SiO₄] and iron [Fe₂SiO₄] are forsterite and fayolite, melted together. If the olivine contains 75% forsterite it's written like this, [Mg_0.75Fe_0.25]₂SiO₄.

Any reflected color has the energy of reflected light radiating off the colored element or composition making that color.
Light is a painters element, it has shape when it is confined and its intensity and mass can be measured. Full sunlight weight is equal to the weight of a single grape, spread out over an entire football field, and that is constant weight! This light reflects off the primary and compounded elements we see around us. Permanent pigments are made of these elements, either organic, inorganic or synthetic. Each element, in it's natural and calcined state is capable of making and reflecting only a select portion of the color wheel. Some elements as crystals can make the whole spectrum. Elements as pigments have painting characteristics unlike any other element, so if you like a color for its characteristics, it cannot be replaced.

Three examples are; 1, Lead, no other element dries as fast or is as opaque. 2, Cobalt natural, (cobalt aluminate blue spinel is just another opaque pre-made color for you to buy), and 3, antimony Naples yellow, probably the artist's most favored color before Church-Ostwald.
Three examples are; 1, Lead, no other element dries as fast or is as opaque. 2, Cobalt natural, (cobalt aluminate blue spinel is similar), and 3, antimony Naples yellow, probably the artist's most favored and useful color before Church-Ostwald is very opaque.
Ostwald matched the dried color chips with new cheaper elements without regard to its native natural characteristics. Rubins would have had them flogged if they tried that while he was alive. This trend that hasn't stopped but we are getting better transparent colors! Cyan (Thalo Blue) is the best thing that ever happened to color and PR122 is the best transparent magenta ever.

So, simplifying your choices is the name of the game here, what colors and what characteristics are most needed to complete a full color painting. Use the transparent pigments that are available and be selective in choosing the opaque ones.

There are 36-colors in the Artist's Real Color Wheel. It joins the Light, Crystal and Pigment color wheel in one color chart because of color shifts to darkness in the Yellow to Red and Cyan to Royal Blue ranges. This same Real Color Wheel can be made with 3, 6, 12, 18, 24 or 36 colors

Start with yellow at the top and "Read Red Right," the three R's of color. Play the wheel like a typewriter. There are only twelve colors basic you must remember, forward, backward and opposing across the middle. "across the middle" is what makes the Real Color Wheel different from all the rest still being taught today as of 06-11-01, 7-13-9 (but we are gaining ground, 20 universities in one month this year requested this RCW). The RCW is a modified combination RGB/YMC color wheel. Now when an artist wants dark yellow, it's dark yellow on the warm side like Naples Yellow, not the cool side (Yellow-Green). That's artist friendly!

Yellow is represented by "Y," Magenta by "M," and Cyan "C." A pure unadulterated yellow would be YY or YYYY, half yellow and half magenta would be YYMM, or the color red, each color has four characters. Orange is YYYM. Scarlet-crimson is YMMM. The opposite of YYYY is MMCC, Ultramarine Blue.

YYYY=Yellow, YYYM=Orange, YYMM=Red, YMMM=Scarlet-Crimson, MMMM=Magenta, MMMC=Purple, MMCC=Ultramarine, MCCC=Azure, CCCC=Cyan, CCCY=Turquoise, CCYY=Green, CYYY=Yellow-green.

Cobalt is a pre-made tertiary pigment paint for the color MCCC, Azure, but it is opaque. It's in the range of the ancient mineral color Azurite. Cu₃[C0₃]₂[0H]₂, A copper idiochromatic color. Azure can easily be mixed with the annalogious colors copper phthalocyanine blue and a good ultramarine blue or the primary transparent cobalt violet [magenta]. In fact with a cobalt violet, [the cool magenta], you don't need Ultramarine Blue, you can make it. One way or the other, Azure is a beautiful color that nature uses often. Cobalt Blue is a tint of the mineral Azurite. Azurite could be found in both transparent and opaque ultramarine blue to phthalocyane blue colors. The new pigment Opera will mix a perfect blue or cobalt blue with cyan.

Each element can only make its own range and texture of colors. No other element has it's similar unique capabilities. By modifying the element we can make its opposite or complementary color, just as the Cuprite crystal of copper and the sediment of copper do naturally.

By explaining minerals and crystals, and the elements that make and color them, you will understand the real color wheel. This color wheel joins the element, crystal, chemical, pigment and the light color wheel together as one, and agrees with the nature of your eyes "after image."

To make the light color wheel match the pigment color wheel, replace the RGB dark path of Yellow (which has a Green tinge for Black as light is subtracted,) with the RCW neutral dark path on the warm side to Brown, that's the Red, orang and Yellow's dark color. Then change Cyan's RGB darkest color to Ultramarine Blue's darkest color. Now all the colors in both palettes will have working oppositions and get dark correctly.

Golden Artist Colors, New.. On 6-10-06 I received a welcomed new color from Golden. Indian Yellow Hue, made with Arylide Yellow PY7, Nickel Complex Azo PY150 and Quinacridone PR206. This is good Golden Indian yellow Hue. Indian yellow Hue green/side Nickel Azo Yellow and azo methane copper complex PY129 BEST GREEN/SIDE INDIAN YELLOW.

In the printed copy describing this new Historical Fluid Acrylic Color I was happy to see my information which was first put on the internet in 1996 regarding original Indian yellow. My print research turned up the cow urine history of this very important color and this information started spreading in 2002 and Indian yellow hue started appearing. The internet loves information and Golden used it describing their new Indian Yellow Hue on their Historical Fluid Color Chart. Today, 7-13-9, paint manufactures are making many verities of Indian yellow and just throwing them at the wall to see what sticks.

• Golden Artist Colors. Indian Yellow Golden Hue, made with Arylide Yellow PY7, Nickel Complex Azo PY150 and Quinacridone PR206.
• Daniel Smith, New Gamboge,  Duel toned, Nickel Dioxine Yellow, PY150, CI48545.
  
• Daniel Smith, Indian Yellow (hue), Duel toned,  Anthrapyrimidine Yellow, Vat Yellow 20, PY108. CI68420. Duel-toned from yellow B/s hue to a Raw Sienna hue.
• Lefranc and Bourgeois, Indian Yellow (Imitation), PY153 Nickel Dioxine Yellow Complex, is a translucent duel-toned yellow-orange in mass-tone to cadmium yellow hue under-tone and top-tone. Makes great reds and warm yellows.
• Grumbacher Indian Yellow Hue, PY1 Arylide Yellow G / PO1 Hansa Orange, translucent, less dual-toned then Nickel Dioxine Yellow.
• Talens, Indian Yellow, PY110 Isoindolinone, from yellow-orange-ocher to yellow. Makes clean reds and warm yellows.
  
• Talens, Gamboge, PY97 Arylide Yellow Fgl, Duel-toned orange-ocher to yellow.
• Schmincke, Chrome Yellow Deep (not lead chrome), PY83 Diarylide Hr70, from yellow pale to yellow deep duel-tone. Makes clean reds and warm yellows.
• Sennelier, Yellow Lake, PY83 Diarylide Hr70 plus PY43 Yellow Ocher Iron Oxide. These are the same pigments as in Old Holland's Indian Yellow B/s, oil. Duel-toned translucent.
• Schmincke, Permanent Yellow Deep, (Indian Yellow Br/s hue), Pr154 Benzimidazolone Yellow H3g plus PY10 Isoindolinone Yellow R. Makes clean reds and yellow-orange yellows.
• Sennelier, Yellow Lake, PY83 Diarylide Hr70 / PY43 Yellow Ocher, is not transparent so it is not really a Lake (transparent) color. It's translucent because of the addition of Yellow Ocher Oxide.
• Holbein, Greenish-Yellow, duel-toned, a G/s Indian Yellow.
• Old Holland is shining! They have the most complete set of transparent Indian yellows. New 7-10-9, Dual-toned Indian Yellow color images, new window.
  

ALEXANDRITE EFFECT, The chrysoberyl alexandrite is red in candle light and green in daylight.

ALLOCHROMATIC, minerals colored by a foreign element are called allochromatic. Ruby is an aluminum oxide colored by chromium, so it's allochromatic foreign and not written in the symbol AL₂0₃.

IDIOCHROMATIC, minerals colored by elements which are a regular part of the chemical composition. The peridot crystal is in the olivine category, it's a magnesium, iron, silicate. The green comes from iron, making this an idiochromatic home color [not foreign] crystal.

ANALOGOUS, colors are side by side on the color wheel rim.

INCIDENT ANGLE, lights entering angle.

REFRACTIVE INDEX, when light enters a cube or amorphous structure the incident ray is slowed by the atoms inside. The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum compared to the speed in the structure is called the refractive index. In crystals other than the cube crystal, the light splits in different directions at different speeds.

REFRACTION, The deviation of a ray of light upon entering a transparent medium, is refraction away from the normal. The emerging ray is separated into the colors of the spectrum. Red refracts most, violet and magenta the least.

DOUBLE REFRACTION, an incident ray enters and splits, each ray traveling at a different speed.

DISPERSION, Diamonds, glass and water give dispersion of light with the proper incident and reflecting angles, thus splitting up white light into its spectrum colors. The water droplets in a rainbow are at the proper angle of refraction to give each color seen by you. Each person sees their own rainbow. The axis from the sun through your eye to the center of the rainbows circle is the basis for the angle of an incidence you see as the rainbows refracted light. Any medium in which the high-frequency light travels more slowly then the lower frequencies are called dispersive.

DIFFRACTION, diffraction is light bending around the edges of a mass.

ISOTROPIC, crystals in which light travels in all directions at the same velocity.

INTERFERENCE COLORS, a thin film of soap or oil will change the direction of the incident ray laterally and cause the prism effect, as the thickness changes the color's change.

LUMINESCENCE or FLUORESCENCE, is stimulated by radiation.

PHOSPHORESCENCE, persisting luminescence after stimulation.

PLEOCHROISM, the change of color when viewed from different directions.

On the ELEMENT PERIODIC TABLE, #22 through #30 are the coloring elements that give color to crystal compounds. Elements color in harmonies.
Analogous, means colors side by side around the rim of the color wheel. Centering, means moving from the high chroma rim to the center's natural dark position. Complementary colors are opposite colors, 180 degrees apart, triadic colors form an equilateral triangle, they're 120 degrees between colors. Split complementary colors are on each side of the opposite, making a "Y". The primary triad is a very wide split complement.

Aluminum- Easily displaced, makes yellow and sometimes blue.

Arsenic- Yellow, orange red and sometimes greenish.

Cadmium- Green, yellow-green, yellow, orange, red to deep red, a substratum dye. Cadmium is not a solid pigment.

Chromium- Analogous system of connected colors. Green [emerald], Yellow-green, Yellow, Orange, and Red [ruby].

Cobalt- Oxides and native, Magenta [MMMM] and cool magenta [MMM1/2C], natural or calcined to Cobalt Blue [MCCC] and Ultramarine Blue [MMCC].

Copper- Green [CCYY] is in the mineral malachite, Cyan-green [CCCY] in turquoise, cyan-blue [CCCC] in azurite, all analogous colors of the copper element.

Iron- Yellow [YYYY] in sapphire, Blue [MMCC] in spinel both opposite colors. Green [CCYY] and Red[YYMM] in sphalerite.

Copperas, green vitriol, or ferrous sulfate.

Lead- White, Yellow, Orange, Red, Brown-Purple Mortuum.

Manganese- Light (tint) Pink-Orange [YYMM] in spessartine and rhodochrosite.

Nickel- Yellow-Green [YYYC] in chrysoprase.

Titanium- White pigment, titanium dioxide. Titanium is a centering element that goes from Yellow to Orange, then Red to Brown and Brown to Blue in the Rutile crystal. It is an element that can cross over the center dark, reaching its complementary color Ultramarine Blue. The Real Color Wheel uses this pattern to darken Yellow instead of using Black as in RGB color wheel.
The "centering" term means the crystal itself has the ability and changes from any full spectrum color to a dark colorless color. This color scale is different in each crystal. The Real Color Wheel follows the crystals lead.

Vanadium- Green [CCYY] in beryl, Yellow [YYYY], Brown [YYMMCC].

Zinc- Yellow-green in sphalerite. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY, [S/G] Is the ratio of size to weight by water displacement, Corundum SG=4, is four times the weight of the same volume of water. Archimedes' Principle, SG= A/A-W.

ELEMENT SYM No. S/G

Aluminum Al 13 2.7 metallic, ore bauxite.

Antimony Sb 51 4.6 brittle metallic, ore stibnite.

Arsenic As 33 --- poisonous, pentavalent As⁺⁵.

Astatine At 85 --- rare element, halogen family, unstable.

Barium Ba 56 3.5 malleable, active, divalent metal, compounds in barite.

Beryllium Be 4 1.8 hard, light, divalent, steel-gray metallic element,

Idiochromatic Primary and Secondary Colors.

Boron B 5 --- ore of Borax.

Bromine Br 35 3.1 liquid, dark-red fuming, resembling chlorine and iodine.

Cadmium Cd 48 8.6 divalent metallic element, allied to zinc, Pigment in 1842.

Calcium Ca 20 --- divalent metal, compounds limestone, chalk, gypsum.

Carbon C 6 --- Diamond and graphite are organic, polymorphs of carbon, graphites two dimensional atomic structure is flat, and is soft graphite, black. The three- dimensional tetrahedrally-oriented covalent bond of diamonds is strong, hard and clear, the opposite of carbon. Diamonds can receive the full range of colors from other elements, they are allochromatic. The opposite color to black is clear, not white.

Chlorine Cl 17 --- Gaseous, combined in salt.

Chromium Cr 24 --- Brittle metallic, source of red in allochromatic compounds.

Cobalt Co 27 --- Metallic silver pink element.

Copper Cu 29 8.92 Malleable, red-brown metal element.

Fluorine F 9 --- Non-metallic corrosive pale yellow gas, combined in fluorite.

Gold Au 19.3 Yellow malleable metal.

Hydrogen H 1 --- Colorless inflammable gas, lightest element.

Iodine I 53 4.93 dark-gray crystalline solid, heats to a dense violet vapor.

Iron Fe 26 7.86 Malleable metallic, silver element. A full spectrum element.

Lead Pb 82 11.34 Malleable, blue-gray metal.

Lithium Li 03 .53 Silver-white. Soft, lightest metallic.

Magnesium Mg 12 1.74 Silver-white metallic, burns white hot.

Manganese Mn 25 7.2 Brittle, gray-white element, allochromatic.

Mercury Hg 80 13.55 Fluid silver-white metallic element.

Molybdenum Mo 42 10.2 Hard, silver-white high melting, metalloid.

Nickel Ni 28 8.9 Hard silver-white, malleable, allochromatic element.

Oxygen O 8 --- Colorless gas, converts elements into oxide compounds.

Phosphorus P 15 1.82 Solid non-metallic element in two allotropic forms, yellow, poisonous, inflammable and luminous. Red, now rare, is less potent, [SG] 2.20.

Platinum Pt 78 2.5 Malleable, gray metallic element.

Potassium K 19 .86 Silver-white metallic, oxidizes rapidly.

Selenium Se 34 4.8 Gray, non-metallic allotropic element, resembles sulfur.

Selenium Se 34 4.5 Red, similar to gray.

Silicon Si 14 2.4 Non-metallic element, amorphous and crystalline forms.

Silver Ag 47 10.5 Malleable silver element.

Sodium Na 11 .97 Soft silver-white metallic element, oxidizes in moist air.

Strontium Sr 38 2.6 Bivalent metallic element found only in a combined state.

Sulfur S 16 2.07 Nonmetallic solid element, used to form sulfates as white lead pigment, and sulfides, burns blue.

Titanium Ti 22 4.5 Dark gray powdered metallic element

Tin Sn 50 7.31 Malleable, low melting silver colored metal.

Tungsten W 74 19.3 Bright-gray, metallic.

Uranium U 92 18.7 White, radioactive, metallic.

Vanadium V 23 5.96 Gray powder metallic, rare.

Zirconium Zr 40 6.4 Metallic, resembles titanium.

Zinc Zn 30 7,14 Blue-white metallic element.
 

00,

DIAMOND, C, [Hardness] H10, Diamonds can receive the full range of colors from other elements, they are allochromatic. This section describes the color and properties each element adds.

01,

LIDDICOATITE, a six sided continuous crystal, clear and colored by iron. The colors of magenta and green are separated in sections and graduated from one end to the other in each crystal, a natural color opposition. All mineral oppositions match my pigment and light color wheel. 

02,,

CHALCOPYRITE, CuFeS₂, [Hardness], H3.5, [specific gravity] SG-4.2. Ore of copper, tetragonal crystal system. It occurs on crystals of galena and has a brassy yellow opaque, metallic color. Idiochromatic colors of iron. 

03,

SPHALERITE,  Zn,S, H3.5, SG-3.9, zinc blend, ore of zinc, cubic system, idiochromatic colors.

ZINC, yellow-green, standard color #11, [CYYY], transparent.

IRON, Idiochromatic colors from, yellow, tan, brown, black, orange and red. High dispersion showing the spectrum like a diamond.

CHROMIUM, crimson and dark green. Transparent to opaque. 

04,

CINNABAR, HgS, H2, SG-8.09, sulphide of mercury ore.

MERCURY, red, standard color #3, [YYMM], opaque, vermilion-red to brown is the color scale for the mass crystal, and transparent scarlet is the color for the transparent crystals. Cinnabar has internal coloring, idiochromatic coloring, because the color comes from the element that's crystallizing, in this case mercury, the liquid metal. The amorphous mass is crushed and used as the pigment vermilion, it's a heavy and a fast drier. Precious and rare. 

05,

GALENA PbS, H2, SG-7.6, ore of lead, sulfide, cubic crystals often twinning. Oxides are white lead pigment. 

06,

REALGAR, AsS, H1.5, SG-3.56, monoclinic crystal system.

ARSENIC sulphide, red standard color, #3, [YYMM], transparent to opaque. Realgar was crushed as a pigment by the ancients as the first red. It's an idiochromatic crystal pigment.

07,

ORPIMENT,As₂₃, H1.5, SG-3.4, monoclinic, transparent to opaque.

ARSENIC di-sulphide, orange standard color, #2, [YYYM], yellow to orange pigments, crushed, idiochromatic pigment.

08,

STIBNITE, Sb₂₃, H2, SG-4.6, ore of antimony, orthorhombic crystal system, lead-gray metallic. Antimony oxide native, is Naples yellow pigment. 
 

09,

PYRITE, FeS₂, H6, SG-5, cubic, metallic brass-yellow.
 

10,

PROUSTITE, Ag3AsS₃, H2, SG-5.6, trigonal, transparent. SILVER and ARSENIC, crimson color at it's best. It tarnishes because of the silver content, idiochromatic, silver added the deep magenta to the red of arsenic. 

11,

PYRARGYRITE, Ag3SbS3, H2.5, SG-5.85, ore of silver, trigonal.

SILVER AND ANTIMONY, a deep warmer crimson than proustite. Idiochromatic, deep crimson, transparent, dark in mass. 
 
 

12,

CUPRITE,Cu20, H3.5, SG-6.14, cubic, crystals found on copper.

COPPER, crimson, standard color #4, [YMMM], transparent. Crimson cuprite crystals are opposite in color to the turquoise colored copper sediment, chalcocite. Idiochromatic. 

13,

CHRYSOBERYL, BeAl₂O₄, H8+, SG-3.74, orthorhombic crystal.

BERYLLIUM, standard yellow centering to brown crystal.

ALUMINUM, yellow is aluminum's home base, but color isn't really it's strong suite, it's the light tricks that make it a special crystal element.

The "cat's eye" gem, it has an opposite color line of light inside, a pale ultramarine blue. Instead of just giving color, aluminum has an array of light tricks to perform with.

14,

SPINEL, MgA1204, H8+, SG-3.6, cubic octahedra, idiochromatic.

MANGANESE, deep transparent red pigment color that lightens to Cadmium Red opaque. The Ruby is Cadmium Red transparent. Idiochromatic.

ALUMINUM, adds yellow sometimes, enhances other elements. CHROMIUM, allochromatic chromium, which gave the red to rubies gives spinel a real kick in the red mass dark, and it never leaves the red spectrum color.

COBALT, bright blue, with allochromatic cobalt, it does well here in aluminum's opposite second home.

15,

ZINCITE, [Zn,Mn]O, H4, SG-5.6, Native zinc oxide, ore of zinc,

MANGANESE, yellow-orange to deep red, idiochromatic, it could be a pigment, rare, brittle, and opaque.

15, ZINC SILICATE, is found in New Jersey, at the Franklin Mine.

ZINC, yellow, yellow-green and green transparent, and opaque white, opaque yellow, orange, red, brown and black. Idiochromatic zinc makes all the colors except those in the cyan spectrum. 

16,

CORUNDUM, Al₂O₃,H9 STANDARD MOHS', SG-3.99, trigonal system, transparent.

CHROMIUM added for red and green, allochromatic.

IRON, makes crystals in blue, cyan, dark-green, yellow, orange, red and magenta. All transparent, all brittle, and all expensive as crushed pigments.

Ruby is the standard transparent red, #3, [YYMM]. It's opposition color mixing to dark neutral is Thalo Blue,(Cyan) PB15:3. In pigments, Thalo Blue Transparent mixes dark with Cadmium Red Opaque also. The other oppositions in paint are acrylic Thalo Green and Acra Violet PR122 by Liquitex. Burnt Umber (for dark yellow) or an orange side transparent Indian dual-toned yellow mixed with an Opaque or Transparent Ultramarine Blue will make a dark neutral. All these pigment oppositions are in the painting section and as individual colors. Clicking here will take you to that section in new windows.

Sapphire blue is the standard transparent blue, #7. [MMCC].

Sapphire yellow is the standard transparent yellow, #1, [YYYY].

Sapphire pink deep is the standard magenta, #5, [MMMM].

ALUMINUM is just one surprise after another, here it is, the softest metal element making the hardest hydroxide, only the softer carbon element makes a harder crystal, the diamond is H10 STANDARD MOHS'. 

17,

QUARTZ, SiO₂, H7 STANDARD MOHS', SG-2.65 trigonal, clear crystal with allochromatic colors.

MANGANESE, standard purple, #6, [MMMC], transparent, amethyst crystals are from magenta to purple.

IRON, rose quartz is a light magenta. Citrine is from yellow to orange, centering dark, through brown. Iron also gives black [deep-red] to onyx, and red and orange in fire agate.

A second verity of quartz is mass and opaque, the aggregate crystals are too small to see.

COPPER, green to cyan, chalcedonies, jasper, and red carnelian, two opposing colors.

NICKEL, yellow-green standard color, #12, [CYYY], chrysoprase. Quartz has a complete range of colors except for ultramarine blue. All allochromatic with foreign elements, giving color to the crystal. Brittle, easy to crush into pigments. 

18,

OPAL, Si02+NH₂O, H6.5, SG-2.1, amorphous crystal, diffraction from spheroids give color. Transparent, translucent and opaque in different crystals. 
 

19,

RUTILE, TiO₂, H6.5, SG-4,23, tetragonal.

TITANIUM, red to brown and yellow to brown, colors centering to neutral dark. Just on the other side of the darkest center in the coloring wheel, brown is mixing with ultramarine blue and getting cooler, some of that blue color shows up. Titanium is the only element that can cross over the dark center. Idiochromatic. Transparent, translucent and opaque in the same crystal. Purple rutile is also found in the Alps, idiochromatic.

TITANIUM, yellow to yellow-brown or red to red-brown, brown changes to a neutral dark by continued mixing with the opposite spectrum colors, ultramarine, azure and cyan. All idiochromatic within titanium.

20,

21,

ANATASE, Tio2 H5.5, SG-3.9, tetragonal, metallic luster.

CASSITERITE, Sn0₂, H6, SG-6.9, ore of tin, tetragonal, metallic. The crystals are clear, yellow, red-brown or black. A one trick pony. This is the yellow pigments natural trip to neutral dark.

22,

HEMATITE, Fe₂O₃ r H5r SG-5.26, ore of iron, trigonal reniform masses, Cadmium Red streak, metallic.
 
 

23,

HALITE, NaC₁, H2.5, SG-2.2, salt is a cubic crystal that may show orange, spectrum purple #6 [MMMC] or blue coloration. It is brittle, soluble, and transparent. 

24,

FLUORITE, CaF₂, H4, SG-3.18, cubic system. Fluorite is allochromatic, it accepts a range of eleven colors, there is no cyan color. Fluorite is also a fluorescent, green to violet, Translucent. 

25,

CUMENGEITE, .Pb₂₁Cu₂OC₁₄₂[OH]40, H2.5, SG=4.6, cubic or tetragonal, two different crystals, depending on the majority mineral element.

LEAD, standard ultramarine blue color, #7,[MMCC], opaque, idiochromatic. Cumengeite.

COPPER, standard cyan color, #9,[CCCC], opaque, idiochromatic. Boleite crystals. 

26,

MALACHITE, Cu₂[C0₃][0H]2, H4, SG-3.6, mass or monoclinic systems.

COPPER, green standard color, #11,[CCYY], opaque, crushed pigment, idiochromatic.

27,

AZURITE, Cu3[CO₃]2[0H]2, H3.5, SG-3.7, monoclinic.

COPPER, Standard Azure color, #8, [MCCC]. Cyan-blue transparent to opaque, shows blue in mass. This was a popular ancient pigment color, crushed, rare. Copper Blue and lead white or vermilion and lead white mixed or touching unmixed will turn black, so there must be a painting isolation layer. It was usually applied with egg and varnished over and never mixed with other colors. The many hues and opacities of azurite ranging from an opaque ultramarine blue, cobalt blue to a opaque or transparent cyan, all effected by oil, in a bad yellowing way. 

28,

CALCITE, CaCO₃, H3 STANDARDMOHS', SG-2.7, trigonal crystals, also aggregate and mass, colorless transparent to translucent.

IRON, Yellow allochromatic.

COPPER, "Iceland Spar", Cyan, allochromatic, polarizing filter. In this crystal light cyan turns into dark ultramarine blue, like in the the Real Color Wheel.

COBALT, "Sphaeroc Cobaltite", standard Magenta Cool,#5, [MMMM], allochromatic.

29,

ARAGONITE, CaCo3, H3, SC-2.94, ortharhombic system, phosphorescent, clear.

30,

DOLOMITE, CaMg[Cu₃]2, H3.5, SG-2.85, trigonal, translucent clear, double refraction like the diamond.

31,

WITHERITE, BaCO₃, H3.5, SG-4.3, orthorhombic crystal system with twinned hexagonal pyramids, that's like the four sided pyramid the Egyptian's were so fond of. Light-translucent, colorless or centering yellow-green to brown, allochromatic. Ore source of barium, found with lead. Pigment extender. 

32, 

SMITHSONITE, ZnCO₃, H4, SG-4.4, trigonal crystal system.

ZINC, translucent green, Idiochromatic, pale. 

33,

AURICHALCITE, [Zn,Cu]5[Cu₃]2[0H]6, H1, SG-3.64, orthorhombic. White opaque.

ZINC AND COPPER, turquoise-green outside, white inside, opaque, crystal forming fragile hollow balls, idiochromatic.

34,

CERUSSITE, PbC03, H3.5, SG-6.5, orthorhombic of many forms, clear transparent, brittle lead and carbon.
 

35,

RHODOCHROSITE, MnCO₃, H3.5, SG-3.7, scalenohedral crystals in the trigonal system, opaque and transparent.

MANGANESE, red standard color, #3, [YYMM], idiochromatic. 

36

SIDERITE, FeCO₃, H4.0,SG-3.9, trigonal, rare gemstones.

IRON, yellow-green to brown, centering colors in different crystals, transparent or translucent. This crystal is the cool side of the Yellow scale to neutral dark. 

37,

DIOPTASE, CuSiO2[OH]2, H5, SG-3.3, trigonal, opaque.

COPPER, Dark-turquoise standard color, #10,[CCCY], idiochromatic, brittle. An ideal native pigment.

38,

CHRYSOCOLLA, [Cu,Al]₂H₂Si₂O₅[OH]4.nH₂O, H2, [with quartz H7], SG-2,6, monoclinic aggregate, idiochromatic copper.

COPPER, turquoise standard color, #10, [CCCY], pale opaque.

Rare crushed opaque pigment, replaced by man made Egyptian frit for a huge market by the Phoenicians.

39,

PHENAKITE, Be₂SiO₄, H7.5, SG-3, trigonal rhombohedral crystals, clear, allochromatic, triadic. NOTICE: CLEAR IS OPPOSITE OPAQUE. WHITE IS A TRANSLUCENT TO OPAQUE NOT CLEAR. CLEAR HAS NO WHITE IN IT.

BERYLLIUM, magenta, cyan, yellow, all pale and transparent. ANOTHER ALL COLOR CRYSTAL. 

40,

WOLLASTONITE, CaSiO₃, H5, SG-3, triclinic, tabular or masses. White opaque, orange fluorescence.

41,

DIOPSIDE, CaMgSi₂O₆, H6, monoclinic.

MAGNESIUM, yellow-green or purple [opposites], internal coloring.

CHROMIUM, dark green. Brittle translucent, foreign coloring. 

42,

SPHENE, CaTiSiO₅, H5.5, SG-3.5, monoclinic wedged shaped crystals and masses.

TITANIUM, yellow-green or yellow, to brown with neutral dark areas, in a transparent crystal. Centering yellow to neutral dark, through warm brown, is a common trait observed with titanium and iron. This is the way my coloring wheel works with yellow going to Brown as the neutral dark instead of Black. To reach Black, one would mix ultramarine blue (opposite of yellow) to brown

CHROMIUM, green, rare crystal, allochromatic. 

43,

ZIRCON, ZrSiO₄, H7, SG-4.6, tetragonal system ends with a four sided pyramid, transparent. Clear to red-brown opaque.

ZIRCONIUM, full spectrum of pale colors, additional heat makes yellow and blue crystals.

Brittle, idiochromatic, the transparent crystals are doubly refractive and rival the diamond in dispersion. 
 

44,

SERANDITE, Na[Mg₂+,Ca]2Si₃O₈[0H], H4.5, SG-3.5, triclinic.

MANGANESE, red-orange, pale, opaque. A weak manganese color with two electrons gone, idiochromatic.

45,

OLIVINE, [Mg,Fe]2SiO₄, H7, SG-3.3, orthorhombic crystals.

MANGANESE, red-orange opaque, shows up as brown when mixed with yellow-green, like the light color wheel, idiochromatic.

IRON, yellow-green, transparent, with two minerals, iron making a transparent yellow-green and manganese making an opaque split-analogous red-orange, what you get is a transparent yellow-green going to opaque brown in the same crystal, or anywhere in between, the peridot series. 

46,

KYANITE, Al₂SiO₅, H7.5 across 4.5 down, SG-3.7, triclinic.

ALUMINUM, white, pale-green to gray, opaque to translucent. Pleochroistic, [changing colors with direction], transparent light green background when perfect, with a "blue light" stripe, translucent. The aluminum element plays tricks with light that no other element can. 

47,

SPODUMENE, LiAlSi₂O₆, H7, SG-3, monoclinic, transparent, ore of Lithium.

LITHIUM, yellow-green, yellow, orange, red, and a Cool Magenta Standard crystal called "Lilac Kunzite". Clear to pale translucent, idiochromatic. Red-orange phosphorescent, the opposite of the missing cyan. It's mind boggling :)

ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, enhances iron and chromium.

IRON, warm green, allochromatic.

CHROMIUM, cool green, allochromatic, works well with aluminum, as in the Corundum compound [Ruby]. 
 

48,

LEUCITE, KAlSi₂O₆, H5.5, SG-2.5, tetragonal, opaque, white.

ALUMINUM, very pale yellow-orange crystal. The aluminum spin on this compound is interference colors on the cut face, like an oil film on water, with orange fluorescence in long-wave ultraviolet light and blue under X-rays. 

49,

ORTHOCLASE, KAlSi₃0₈, H6 STANDARD MOHS', SG-2.5, monoclinic.

ALUMINUM, pale yellow-orange opaque crystals. The transparent yellow gem [moonstone], has internal light diffusion, another light trick by the inclusion of aluminum. 

50,

BERYL, Be₃Al₂[Si0₃]6, H7.5,SG-2.7, hexagonal crystal system.

BERYLLIUM element in Beryl crystal, cyan, yellow, idiochromatic.

ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, idiochromatic,

IRON, green, yellow-green, yellow, orange, red, scarlet, magenta purple, blue, azure, cyan, turquoise, iron at it's best will display the whole spectrum in Beryl. Allochromatic.

CHROMIUM, green standard, #11, [CCYY] and red, allochromatic.

MANGANESE, red, allochromatic.

Double elements in yellow #1,[YYYY], cyan #9,[CCCC], red #3, [YYMM], and green #11,[CCYY], all standard colors. Yellow [heliodor], magenta [morganite], cyan [aquamarine] and green [emerald].

ALUMINUM in beryl excepts a lot of foreign chromates, just as it does in the corundum and spodumene compounds, Here an aluminum light trick is found in aquamarine, light cyan is seen from one direction and deep cyan from a 90 degree off angle.

51,

EUCLASE, BeASi0₄[0H], H6.7, SG-3, monoclinic system.

BERYLLIUM, standard color cyan, #9,[CCCC], yellow to cyan, idiochromatic, transparent.

52,

GROSSULAR, Ca₃Al₂[SiO₄]3, H7, SG-3.5, cubic, garnet group.

ALUMINUM, standard color orange, #2,[YYYM], yellow to orange, centering to brown, idiochromatic, transparent, CHROMIUM, green, allochromatic.

53, 

LABRACORITE, NaAlSi₃O₈-CaAl₂Si₂O₈, H6, SG-2.5, sodium-aluminum series of plagioclase feldspars.

ALUMINUM, blue to cyan color plus an unusual effect called schiller, the inside glow of cyan color moves with you, playing off included lamellae minerals. Idiochromatic, opaque.

IRON, yellow to red, the allochromatic intrusion of hematite reverses the spectrum to show it's opposite colors. 

54,

SPESSARTINE, Mn₃Al₂[SiO₄]3, H7, SG-4, cubic, garnet family.

ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, turning red to orange with manganese.

MANGANESE, orange to red, transparent, idiochromatic.

IRON, red, transparent, allochromatic, adding transparent red until it's a deep transparent red. This is only a 30 degree span of color with no complementary intrusion toward centering. This is the light "almandine garnet".

55,

ALMANDINE, Fe₃Al₂[SiO4]3, H7, SG-4, cubic, transparent, Garnet.

ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, added to the red of iron, idiochromatic.

IRON, red, idiochromatic, transparent.

CHROMIUM, red, transparent, allochromatic. These two elements together make a transparent red and transparent red deeply saturated. This red is so deep and spectrum dark it has to be very thinly sliced to see any color at all. "Deeply saturated" means a transparent to opaque color skipping translucent.

56

EPIDOTE. Ca₂[Al,Fe₃+]3[SiO₄]3[OH], H7, SG-3.4, monoclinic.

ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, transparent, idiochromatic, pleochroistic directional change of color.

IRON, yellow-green Epidote has a unique coloring system, combining split analogous colors yellow-green and orange, through brown to a warm neutral dark transparent color. 

57,

VESUVIANITE, Ca10Mg₂Al₄[SiO₄]5[Si₂07]2[OH]4, H7, SG-3.3,

MAGNESIUM, wants to go dark and opaque, or transparent, either way, it does it with flair.

ALUMINUM, yellow, transparent, standard #1[YYYY], and blue, transparent, standard #7 [MMCC], centering to neutral. Crystals in the tetragonal system, some masses in the orange or azure range. By centering yellow to brown, the three analogous colors of this gem, yellow-green, yellow and orange go to brown. On the other side of this analogous range is blue, blue crystals were found in Norway. Idiochromatic.

CHROMIUM, green, allochromatic. 

58,

APOPHYLLITE, KCa₄Si₈O₂O[F,OH]8H₂O, H4.5, SG-2.

White to pale cool green, opaque, idiochromatic, non-metallic mineral. 

59,

TOPAZ, Al₂[F,OH]₂SiO₄, H8 STANDARD MOHS', SG-3.53, orthorhombic crystal system.

ALUMINUM, yellow, mostly orange, red and magenta, some azure crystals come from Zimbabwe.

Idiochromatic colors of aluminum under high pressure. 

60,

ELBAITE, Na[Li,Al]3Al₆[BO₃]3Si₆₁₈[OH]4, H7.25, SG-3.05, trigonal, tourmaline group, transparent, pyroelectricity w/heat.

IRON, green, red, and warm Magenta, brown.

LITHIUM, yellow, magenta, idiochromatic.

ALUMINUM, yellow, blue, idiochromatic.

MANGANESE, orange and red, allochromatic.

COPPER, green, cyan, allochromatic. Many Elbaite crystals show more than one color in a clear rainbow ordered spectrum. 

61,

LAPIS LAZULI, H5-6, SG-2.8, or higher if pyrite is included. This is the Standard Color for ultramarine blue opaque, #7, [MMCC], an ancient pigment. A rock of many compounds. Lazurite, a sodium aluminum silicate with sulfide, deep blue crystals. Hauyne, Sodalite, [a sodium aluminum silicate with sodium chloride that occurs in crystals and masses], and Nosean. Lapis lazuli is a contact metamorphic mineral found in limestone and granite, the best is found in Afghanistan, from ancient times until today. 
 
 

62,

TURQUOISE, CuAl₆(PO₄]4[OH]8.4-5H₂O, H5.5, SG-2.7, triclinic.

ALUMINUM, transparent.

COPPER, turquoise standard color, #10,[CCCY], transparent. Transparent turquoise crystals are rare, it's usually found in opaque masses, idiochromatic. 

63,

WAVELLITE,  Al₃ [PO₄]2[OH,F]3.5H₂O, H3.5, SG-2.36, orthorhombic crystal system, acicular, like the needles of Rutile suspended in clear crystal, only these needle crystals form a dense rocklike mass.

ALUMINUM, yellow, brown, blue, centering standard, transparent. Aluminum really does it big this time, each needle starts at the center radiating outward, concentrical ringed bands form around the center, each band ending as a cleavage line, twenty or so bands per complete needle crystal. The band itself can change from clear transparent to opaque white while in the center, the second band range is transparent yellow crystal, than brown, than blue. From brown to blue, the crystal can change into an aggregate and lose it's crystal properties. THIS MINERAL PHOSPHATE SHOWS THE CENTERING OF YELLOW TO BROWN AND BROWN TO BLUE, LIKE MY REAL COLOR WHEEL FOR ARTISTS PIGMENTS. 

64,

BRAZILIANITE, NaAl₃[PO₄]2[0H]4, H5.5, SG-2.9, monoclinic.

ALUMINUM, yellow, cool, transparent, idiochromatic. 

65,

AUTUNITE, Ca[UO₂]2[PO₄]2.10-12H₂O, H2, SG-3.1, tetragonal.

URANIUM, yellow, translucent, Idiochromatic uranium, warm to cool yellow, pigment in the 1940's, fluorescent yellow. 

66,

VIVIANITE, Fe₃[P0₄].8H₂0, Hardness 1.5, SG-2.68, monoclinic.

IRON, standard color for cyan, #9,[CCCC], transparent, idiochromatic. Cyan to green crystals.

Laminae fibrous, long thin radiated crystals, transparent clear when first mined, turning cyan with light exposure. 

67,

LEGRANDITE, Zn₂[AsO₄][OH],H20 H5, SG-4, monoclinic family.

ZINC, yellow, cool, transparent, idiochromatic.

ARSENIC, standard yellow, #1, [YYYY], transparent, idiochromatic. Bright yellow idiochromatic, with zinc and arsenic. Arsenic taking it to the warm side in it's luminous shadows. Probably the strongest yellow color in crystal form. 

68,

FLUORAPATITE, Ca₅[P0₄]3F, H5 STANDARD MOHS', SG-3.2, apatite family, hexagonal system, transparent.

Yellow, yellow-green, green, cyan, blue, purple and a violet close to magenta, [MMM,1/2M-1/2C. Two-thirds of the color wheel without any metallic element in the compound. 

69,

PYROMORPHITE, Pb₅[P0₄]3C₁, H3., SG-6.5, hexagonal system.

LEAD, cool yellow to bright yellow. LEAD MAKES TWO OPPOSITE COLORS, BLUE AND YELLOW, MORE NATURAL PROOF OF MY PIGMENT COLOR WHEEL.

Yellow to yellow-green in the shadows, translucent, some times found on azurite, the opposite color. 

70,

MIMETITE, Pb₅[AsO₄]3CAsO₁, H3.5, SG-7.24 monoclinic, transparent.

LEAD, yellow, cool, idiochromatic.

ARSENIC, yellow to orange to brown, idiochromatic.

Cool yellow, warm yellow and orange analogous colored crystals are found around the world. 

71,

VANADINITE, Pb₅[VO₄]3C₁, H3, SG-6.8, hexagonal system. VANADIUM, scarlet, transparent, idiochromatic.

LEAD, standard red, #3, [YYMM], transparent, idiochromatic. Vanadium, a rare metallic element, compounded with lead makes a red transparent crystal. 
 
 

72,

GYPSUM, CaSO₄.2H₂0, H2 STANDARD MOHS', SG-2.32, monoclinic, white, idiochromatic yellow and green to a centered brown. 

73,

CELESTINE, SrSO₄, H3.5, SG-4, orthorhombic, ore of strontium.

STRONTIUM, blue or yellow, idiochromatic, opposites. THIS CRYSTAL IS ONE OF MANY THAT PROVES WITH NATURE; THE REAL COLOR WHEEL HAS THE SAME THIRTY SIX, TWENTY FOUR, TWELVE, SIX AND THREE COLORS SETUP, BOTH IN LIGHT AND PIGMENT.

74,

BARITE, BaS0₄, H3.5, SG-4.5, orthorhombic. Ore of barium.

BARIUM, yellow to yellow-orange and blue to azure, opposite colors on the Real Color Wheel. transparent to translucent, idiochromatic.

CHROMATES
 

75,

CROCOITE, PbCrO₄, H2.5, SG-5.99, monoclinic, transparent.

LEAD, no color, transparent.

CHROMIUM, red, transparent, idiochromatic.MOLYBDATES 

76,

WULFENITE, PbM4, H2.75, SG-7, tetragonal.

LEAD, no color, transparent.

MOLYBDENUM, yellow, orange, red, transparent, idiochromatic. 

77,

SCHEELITE, CaWO₄, H4.5, SG-6, tetragonal, forming octahedra crystals or masses, ore of tungsten.

TUNGSTEN, colorless, yellow, orange, brown, transparent, crystals. Idiochromatic. Tungsten has very unique spectrum of colors, it's a curve to neutral dark. THIS CRYSTAL HAS THE SAME COLOR PATH AS THE PIGMENT INDIAN YELLOW GENUINE, which we no longer have available. [Banned in 1899 by England] THIS YELLOW IS ON THE REAL COLOR WHEEL. W/N].
 

78,

WOLFRAMITE, [Fe,Mn]WO₄, H4.5, SG-7.5, monoclinic.

IRON, red, matching the manganese, iron can be, and can center any color to a neutral dark, red dark is in the yellow dark of the Real Color Wheel, and YELLOW CENTERS THROUGH BROWN. Idiochromatic.

MANGANESE, red, transparent, idiochromatic, Manganese and iron, two red elements making a very deep red-brown that looks black, found with white and clear quartz.
 
 

[1] YELLOW, #13, #16, #50, #57, #67

---YELLOW TO BROWN, #13, #19

---YELLOW, BROWN, NEUTRAL DARK, BLUE, #63

[2] ORANGE, #07, #52

[3] RED, #4, #6, #16, #35, #50, #71

[4[ CRIMSON, #4, #12

[5] MAGENTA, #16, #28

[6[ PURPLE, #16, #17

[7[ ULTRA BLUE, #16, #25, #57, #61

[8] AZURE, #27

[9] CYAN, #25, #50, #51, #66

[10] TURQUOISE, #38, #62

[11] GREEN, #26, #50

[12] YELLOW-GREEN, #03, #17
 
 

Al= ALUMINUM, +63

Be= BERYLLIUM, +13

Fe= IRON, -17

Fe= IRON, +03

W= TUNGSTEN, +77

Ti= TITANIUM, +42

Ti= TITANIUM, +21

Ti= TITANIUM, +19
 
 

Ba= BARIUM, +31

Fe= IRON, +36

Ti= TITANIUM, +42

Ti= TITANIUM, +42
 
 

Fe= IRON, -18

Mg= MAGNESIUM, +15

Mg= MAGNESIUM, +77

Ti= TITANIUM, +28

Zn= ZINC, +15
 
 

ONE MILLION B/C, People were sparsely covering the earth, moving in tribes and gathering where important resources were found, Weapons were important, hard flint was found while digging caves in feldspar and clay, people gathered in these areas, England, France, Egypt and Central Africa. Over a hundred thousand people were walking around at any one time. Salt was found and traded. Egypt was settled from the top with the Nubian's coming over the mountains from Central Africa and the salt traders moving up to lush cool land on the upper Nile.

100,000 B/C, Rivers were important too, people found the Niger River with perfect weather. Have you ever heard of Timbuktu? There it is in the middle of Africa. The Congo River was settled, and Lake Victoria must have been "The Garden of Eden", it connected to the Upper Nile. The Tigris and Euphrates River Valley drew a crowd, as well as India's Indus and Ganges Rivers. The Mekong and the Thailand region got its share too, but inland China got more, with the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers.

30,000 B/C, A lot of people came and went by now, over thirty six billion people so far, all the good places were occupied by somebody.

10,000 B/C, Man had settled down to farming, raising animals, and having pets and kids.

8000 B/C, Egypt and China are working metal, China has pottery happening also, both places are into mining, for tools, weapons and pigments. When the fighting is done artists are revered, important people like to have nice things and their willing to pay for them.

6000 B/C, Eskimo's Northwest of the Hudson Bay had copper fish hooks ground from native glacial copper.

There's enough people in each area now to develop cultures, we'll start with Egypt, the Mediterranean, and include the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, since they had the highest developed cultures at the time.

8000 B/C, EGYPT The Nile flooded annually and left behind fertile farm land for crops, water wheels moved water around since there was no rain. Early surveying established boundaries, since the Nile left no landmarks. On the Lower Nile where there were no trees, reeds made forms, to be filled with clay as building columns. Above the 6th cataract, boats traveled up and down, to Lake Albert and into Lake Victoria. The cataracts separated groups of people and Egypt had full control of the Nile below the 1st cataract.

5000 B/C, An estimated 500,000 people were alive in Egypt, by now they were casting copper and mining these minerals; gold, silver, agate, carnelian, chrysoprase, jasper, rock crystal, turquoise, olivine, chrysocolla, green feldspar, jade, green fluorite, malachite, azurite, galena, tin, copper, garnet, cuprite, hematite and lapis lazuli. This list grows in later periods of Egyptian history. They were the world's greatest miners, when they found a vein they followed it to the end.

4000 B/C, Egypt, Iran and Iraq are casting gold, silver and bronze. Egypt heated gypsum to make quicklime plaster of Paris, for walls and murals. An iron-nickel knife was found in a pyramid, possibly made from a meteorite.

3500 B/C, Upper and Lower Egypt are joined together, they were painting with water based mediums of gum, casein and lime. Tin was their color base. Alum was used in dying cotton and hardening lime cement.

3000 B/C, An Egyptian priest named Manetho, listed the rulers of Egypt. Big government must have started around 5000 B/C in Thebes. The III Dynasty's capitol was in Memphis, and by then a thousand years of mastabas's had been built, preceding the pyramids built in 3000 B/C. The Great Pyramids and Sphinx at Giza are a short distance away. The Sphinx was a portrait of Pharaoh Khafra of the IV Dynasty, the entrance passage pointed to Polaris, it was 479' high, covered with smooth polished marble, which the Roman's later took for their own buildings, An underground passage way connected the Sphinx to the Pyramid. No human structures are older then the mastaba tombs of the Old Kingdom of Egypt.

2500 B/C, Egypt's Old Kingdom had frescoes of miners, smelters, farmers and their crops, musicians, portraits, the "good life". Men were painted red-brown and the woman were all fair skinned, both had black or blond hair. Fresco were painted on flat walls or on bas-relief, the support was quick lime plaster. Their fresco pigments were calcined tin, which fired from white to yellow, orange, red and magenta. They also had madder root and karmes to deepen the magentas. Another yellow was realgar, a native crystal compound of arsenic di-sulfite, and native orpiment arsenic for the brown, orange and red transparent colors. Yellow to brown, and yellow to red were the earth ochers. Light green was crushed amazonite, dark green was crushed malachite. Other crushed ores, were the ultramarine-cyan-side azurite, and the ancient true blue, ultramarine. Sculpture's were done in limestone, marble, granite, basalt, quartz and diorite. All done in the perfect, lifelike, "high art" technique. Most of them were painted, like everything else in Egypt.

The Egyptians were big-time shipbuilders in the Old Kingdom which ended with Pepy II of the VI Dynasty, 2350 B/C, Art starts going downhill as disruptive changes start taking place.

2000 B/C EGYPT, MIDDLE KINGDOM, Nubia produced one thousand tons of gold for Egypt.

2160-1785 B/C, The Middle Kingdom of the XI-XII Dynasties were a feudal system set up by the kings of Thebes. Art declined into chaos. The tombs were moved up river to the cliffs of Beni Hasan.

1500 B/C Ireland, Added 2-14-9, New information, The Book Barn in Niantic, Connecticut had a volume on Irish metal work from 1500 B/C.  This came in an email from Laurie Pessemier, a long time member of my Painting on Location Forum. http://www.realcolorwheel.com/cgi-bin/yabb/YaBB.cgi?board=Acrylic_Painting_on_Location;action=display;num=1226358839 "Can you believe in Ireland they were making sophisticated gold objects in 1500 BC?   In fact, there is a big difference between what was produced in Eastern and Western Ireland.  This sort of thing doesn't fit neatly into our concept of Western civilization."

1580 B/C, EGYPT, The Empire or New Kingdom, waged war and conquered from Nubia to Mesopotamia. The XVIII Dynasty with Ikhnaton would change from polytheism to monotheism, with Ammon as their chief god. The XX Dynasty was losing power and the Assyrian Kings captured the land. Zinc is smelted from lead.

1300 B/C, EGYPT, included Lake Moeris at the outside, twenty five miles from Memphis. Alexandria was just east of the last tributary of the Nile.

King Tutankhamen of the XVIII Dynasty had smelted iron tools, "high art" was back for a short time, they produced a lifelike 240 pound gold casting of him for his inner coffin. During this period the Egyptians are friendly toward the Greeks and influenced their architecture.

663-525 B/C, The Saite period was named for the new capitol in Sais, in the Nile delta, the XXVI Dynasty drove out the Semitic invaders, only to fall later to the Ptolemies, and than Rome.

500 B/C, EGYPT, has expanded to include a new shrine to the god Ammon, in the city of Ammonium, 200 miles east of Lake Moeris, in the middle of the Qattara Depression, 436' below sea level. Here is mined the ammonia gum and salt to supply the ancient world with a new medium, water based wax paint, cara colla. This was the medium of the Fayum Funeral Portraits, not encaustic (hot wax). Egypt has now expanded 300 miles east of Memphis. It is now 20% bigger than China in this age of Confucius. Byzantium was half the size of the peninsula of Italy and one quarter the size of Egypt.

7000 B/C, AEGEAN, Crete is the lost and found department of the Mediterranean. The current circled Crete and dropped off lost sailors, these settlers exported wine and olive oil, became sea traders and started the Minoan Empire.

6500 B/C, Flint and copper mined at Catal Huyuk, in Asia Minor, a Turkish culture.

4000 B/C, MINOAN, Aegean Sea, the Pre-Creek, Crete civilization was awesome. The two, three or four storied Palace of Cnossus had running water, flush toilets, and the original underground beehive corbel vault, the first curved ceiling.

2000 B/C, Homer said there were ninety cities on this little unfortified island During this peak, their paintings were similar in tone to Egypt's, including the front facing eyes on profile heads. There were no large sculptures to be found on Crete. A Greek guide told me they were stolen. Crete's fresco had better shading than Egypt's, they also had 3/4 views of people in everyday scenes. Their ceramic fired paint was iron based.

By this year in history, bronze was being made all over the Mediterranean.

1000 B/C, MINOA, Red lips and eye shadow were reflecting taste's from Egypt. Woman wore bare breasted fashions, which is why probably no painting examples are to be found, they were all destroyed, as being pagan, or just stolen.

The Sumerian's taught the Minoan's how to smelt bronze from copper and tin. Lead and sandarac (Sandracca) was the protective paint. Homer mentions a red cart he saw in a courtyard, lead red.

The later Mycenaean Age on the mainland was only the afterglow of this great culture.

7000 B/C, PRE-JERICHO was big in the salt trade at the north end of the Dead Sea.

2000 B/C, PHOENICIA was on the coast between Egypt and Mesopotamia, they were merchants and had discovered how to extract silver from lead.

1200 B/C, PHOENICIA was growing into a world power via trading with it.

The oldest paints came from the oldest civilizations, they all made one kind of paint or another. Most of the known world was traveled by sea, from Africa to England to Japan. These world travelers and traders worked with the best of everything, always on the cutting edge. Painting and protecting their boats was very important. Alcohol paints were the oldest paints outside Egypt and the most used. Sandarac, (Sandracca) was mixed with lead paint and castor oil, it was the best for their boats. They got the materials from Morocco in north Africa.

Lead corrodes with acids and forms oxides, when heated they turn from white to yellow, to orange and then red. They painted their ships of commerce this bright red and the whole world looked forward to seeing them arrive.

"Eric the Red" had a red boat and red hair.

1100 B/C, Phoenician's built city-states at their ports of call, Gades was at the entrance to the Mediterranean, other City States were in the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Carthage, Oea [between Cartage and Egypt], and their home port of Tyre, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, now called Beirut.

700 B/C, Phoenicia, all the known world was shared by the Greek, Phoenicia, Etruscan and the Assyrian Empires.

600 B/C, Phoenician Empire becomes part of the New Babylonian Empire, reaching to the Persian Gulf, their empire was over.

2000 B/C, MYCENAEANS, from the city in Argous State on Peloponnesus Island were Pre-Greek and were a rich culture for the last thousand years, as Homer said, over a ton of gold was retrieved from the Heinrich Schliemann excavations. He was a merchant for the color indigo from India. The finest indigo was transparent cyan in color, rivaling the opaque copper cyan frit of Egypt that was distributed by the Phoenicians.

1500 B/C, The ETRUSCAN and GREEK civilizations formed about this time, equal to the EGYPTIAN MIDDLE EMPIRE, the XII Dynasty. The Etruscans used lead, iron, mercury, cobalt and arsenic colors, and the copper frits from Egypt. Turpentine, mastic, balsams, egg, wax and lime were the mediums for painting, also sandarac, (Sandracca) from Morocco. By the time Christ was born, Romans were great painters and the Greeks would be great sculptures. The Greeks were probably great painters also, but no paintings or murals survived. Pompeii and Herculaneum murals in Italy were saved by being buried with lava dust from the Vesuvius eruption in A/D 79. These painting were wax based, cera colla to be sure. Experts can't find any additives to the wax and so call it wax encaustic, but that is because the ammonia turned back to gas. It's the same with the Fayian Grave Portraits.

1100 B/C, PELOPONNESUS, the seat of this early Mycenaean, Pre-Greek civilization, is the large land that forms the southern end of the Greek peninsula. The Dorian, Ionian, and Aiolian tribes that begin occupying Peloponnesus will form the Greek civilization, and fight the Trojan War. Art diminishes and the first "Dark Age" period is upon us, artisans are working in limestone, marble and diorite, an igneous rock of plagioclase feldspar and hornblende. Their not getting much support.

1000 B/C, PELOPONNESUS Dark Ages, Homer writes the Iliad and the Odyssey, and unites the people with stories about their great god's.

All art is only abstract, the work of children who lived through the wars. Geometric forms similar to our post war abstract modern art, painting in general is on a downhill slide after the Mycenaean Age, which was also declining at the end. Very little art is to be found from this"Dark Age period of Painting" until 525 B/C., and there only cartoon drawings without shadows, like the Egyptians with out the rigorous formality of positions. Perhaps this is a great step forward.

900 B/C, GREECE is smelting bronze, It's now all one big happy, united peninsula.

700 B/C, Clay plate ceramics of mining at Corinth, Greece are found.

600 B/C, The Temple of Hara, the Heraeum at Olympia, had wood columns which were replaced by stone in the Doric order. In Delphi, Greece, their sculptures were stiff with heavy Egyptian influence. I went there in 1963 to see the theater stadium, it was about 30 seat steps high, half way around a single tennis court in size. It was way out of the way and everything was a red-tan color.

580 B/C, Coreyra, early Corfu, at the top of the Ionian Island's chain, bas-reliefs with Egyptian influence. The "Youth from Attica" sculpture is the stiff "Apolos", or Greek-Egyptian type.

550 B/C, the "Hera of Samos" looks as if it were cut from a tree, very massive.

500 B/C, Cretin sculpture is more advanced with perfect lifelike figures.

500 B/C, Aegina, the large island near Athens, is reaching the peak in sculpturing, good movement and good proportions.

500 B/C, Berlin has a ceramic jug with realistic stylized drawing that is better then the Greeks work at the time.

470 B/C, Delphi bronze are life size, stiff and close to realistic. The Persian War's are over and Greece starts rebuilding. They will be the next rulers of the Persian Empire.

460 B/C, Percles is in power, the second Temple of Hera is built at Paestum, it's 80' wide and it's also called the Temple of Posidon. Located in Southern Italy, it looks like an early Parthenon, Doric in style, with salt water cured wax painted blue and red on at least the moldings. The other order of architecture to emerge from the "dark Ages" is Ionic, a more elaborate and decorated style, which was popular on the more advanced Aegean Islands.

"Zeus" the poured bronze sculpture was larger than life and perfect. They told me in Greece it was really a sculpture of Posidon and probably stolen from Crete. Myron, made perfect "High Art" bronzes as seen from the Roman copy of "The Discus Thrower".

440 B/C, Doric Parthenon, 101' wide, 228' long, created by the Greek architects Ictinus and Callicrates, it was Athena's Temple, built on the highest of Athens three hills. It was made from the best pentelic marble, Phidias was the master sculpture. Polygnotus was their greatest painter, working in wax and mastic. All of his paintings have vanished. Polyclitus proportioned the body seven heads high, close but ...

410 B/C, Ionic Erechtheum, straight fluted pillars on the back and the Porch of the Maidens in front.

356 B/C, ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Macedon or Macedonia was just north of and almost as big in 450 B/C, as all of Greece, of which he unified most of in his conquests.

His Empire was so big, how big? It started across from the heal of Italy, the Etruscans were the third largest land holding empire at that time, from that point on to India, including Egypt, that's big. It combined the Aegean, Egyptian, and Phoenician Cultures, and the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia to the end of the Tigris-Euphrates in the Persian Gulf. Then, that distance again to the Indian cultures, up to and including the Indus River. This was too big to control and it ended after only thirteen years.

323 B/C, MACEDONIA-GREECE, Aristotle, pupil of Plato, the world of science, author of the "Republic" and "The Poetics", tutor to Alexander and inventor of his glass diving bell.

300 B/C, Eratosthenes measured accurately the size of the earth. Euclid developed his theorems of geometry and Archimedes discovered the principle of specific gravity.

The Corinthian capitol was designed for the Temple of Apollo at Bassae. Three sculptors were famous at this time, Praxiteles, Scopas and Lysippus, who was a court portraitists for Alexander the Great. Lysippus changed Polyclitus's body-head ratio from 1:7, to 1:8. I found perfect to be, adding a quarter head for and in the neck space and subtracting it from the lower torso, that puts the center of the body one quarter head above the top of the legs space instead of between the legs.

200 B/C, The "Victory of Samothrace" was reconstructed from pieces. The "Dying Gaul" by Pergamum in 225 B/C, and the "Aphrodite of Melos" are all fine examples of Hellenistic sculpture. Great sculpture under Attalus I, thus forming the first school of Pergamum.

100 B/C, The Second School of Pergamum under Eumenes II, "The Boy With a Goose" by Boethus, marble, 2'9" high is "perfect high art", it's the second time man has reached this level of sculpture, absolute control of the medium and complete understanding of anatomy. Boethus may have come from the workshops in Alexandria, which Alexander helped create. The next time this stage will be reached is in 1500, with Michelangelo the sculpture and Signorelli the painter, They must have had some great paintings in 100 B/C, but none survived.

7000 B/C MESOPOTAMIA, Camps were forming in the Fertile Crescent, 600 miles East of the Mediterranean, by 4000 B/C they were large villages and by 3000 B/C these non-Semitic Sumerians had city kingdoms, in Babylonia, the area was called Mesopotamia. Their art was on glazed tiles and bas-relief sculptures. Tapestries took the place of paintings.

3000 B/C, MESOPOTAMIA, Mesopotamia has fully developed palaces and mansions, a grain and wool trade, and had developed the first form of writing called, cuneiform. With a single wedge shaped stick they made an entire alphabet and counting system on clay, that's the basis for all Western written languages today. The Sumerian's had 200 words for different kinds of sheep. Their art was also based on clay, as stone was as rare as wood. These non-Semitic Sumerians and Semitic Akkadians, were warring people, with the balance of power shifting back and forth in Sumer.

The sculpture was heading to realism in 2400 B/C, it never made it and went downhill after that.

2300 B/C, MESOPOTAMIA, Sumer is conquered by the Arab Semites who start Babylon in 1800 B/C, north of Sumer.

800 B/C, MESOPOTAMIA, bas-relief looks Egyptian with stiff poses and frontal eyes on the profile.

705 B/C, MESOPOTAMIA, The Palace of Sargon, at Khorsabad, was honeycombed with arches and drains, glazed tiles protected unfired clay brick walls. The temple tower was oriented like the pyramids, it was seven stories high with a ramp around the outside, leading to the top. Each level was a different color tile with white at the bottom, than black, scarlet, blue, orange, silver and gold at the top. From the top one could see for twenty miles in each direction, no trees, no hills.

This Sumerian, Assyrian, Palace was fortified and raised sixty feet off the ground, 1140' x 1050'. That's a lot of brick to make and set, and a lot of slaves to do the work. There were no wood beams to be had, so the ceilings were domed brick, the cavities filled in, and a flat roof on top. Great rugs and tapestries covered the walls and floors. Sculpture followed an Oriental and Egyptian line, monsters of stone guarded the entrances. People were stiff as in later Egyptian work. Bas-relief wall sculptures covered the interior walls of important rooms.

Persia ultimately conquered Mesopotamia in 590 B/C.

500 B/C, ETRUNIA, Pre-Roman Etruscan art was influenced by Greek art, mostly humans with simple landscapes and flowers. They used the colors of Egypt but were not as far advanced as Egypt or Crete.

Palermo bas-reliefs are stiff in the Egyptian style. Naples has better drapery, more flowing and less stiffness.

146 B/C, ROME conquers Greece. There was a new king now, that other one third of the Mediterranean, Etrunia, had grown into the Roman Empire. This was the time of Caesar, 44 B/C. They paid big money for the best of the Greek artists to decorate their great vacation paradise, Naples. The other great Mediterranean vacation city was Alexandria, Egypt. Greek artists and Egyptian artists taught school there. Roman artists would come to study and be great artists themselves in a hundred years. 10 B/C, The statue of Agustus from Prima Porta is a good example of great Roman work, after Greece.

100 B/C, HERCULANEUM and POMPEII, high art painting, natural and realistic, fresco figures show solid form without resorting to outlines. Pompeii has a lot of great glue paintings protected by wax, there not encaustic as some historians believe. Cara Colla painting with emulsafied wax was also popular. Tight work was not done with hot encaustic wax. Art will become scarce again, destroyed for the second Dark Age of painting after the Vesuvius eruption in A/D 79, until its resurrected by Cimabue, in A/D 1300, Giotto, Duccio and finally, the great Masaccio, a hundred years later in 1420. Twelve hundred years of work, destroyed by the Iconoclasts of A/D 842.

A/D 100, Roman vaulted architecture, the Pantheon and Coliseum. The Roman Empire includes from England to Morocco, over to Egypt, Mesopotamia, Armenia and up to Germania.

A/D 200, Baths of Caracalla, high vaulted. Pictura Translucida.

A/D 400, Christianity was an oriental cult in Rome, with "mithrac" the Persian sun god being important, but Christianity prevailed. The Apse Mosaic, Santa Pudenziana, Rome, was fired colored glass of a somber nature, grays, green and umber.

A/D 476, The Last Roman Emperors, are displaced by German soldiers. The Han Empire of China is breaking up. India is being sacked by nomadic invaders. Everything was in regression except East Rome, the Byzantine Empire with their mosaics, wax and mastic and egg painting. They would be the premier artists until Giotto came aboard. Two art periods arose, one before the Iconoclastic Controversy which destroyed most pagan art, and one after the victory of the Pro-image Party in 842. Most of the Byzantine art that remains are mosaics in churches. Byzantine was captured by the Turks in 1453.

A/D 500 CONSTANTINOPLE, Hagia Sophia, four pendentive pillars hold up the dome. A great architectural achievement by Justinian, successor to Rome in the sixth century. This is the First Golden Age of Byzantine, it will end with the Iconoclastic controversy of the ninth century.

A/D 600 ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS, The transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, still in the second dark age period, art is nowhere yet. The monasteries are the only places any painting is being done, they are the decorated manuscripts that persist for another five hundred years. Painting in books is a little like the Chinese are doing at this time, by painting on scrolls and putting them in boxes.

A/D 700 CONSTANTINOPLE, The Lucca Manuscript describes some little known forms of art, one called Pictura Translucida. At this time when artists were making paintings more beautiful then ever seen today. They had not only a complete opaque palette, but a compleat transparent palette as well. By todays standards the colors were not as permanent as todays pigments though. They made a halo or face glow by adding reflectance to the surface support.

They, the Byzantines, painted on a shinny tin plate. To give you an idea of how this works, raw sandracca resin can have a yellow transparent color, and when painted on shinny tin it gives the appearance of gold. Sandracca can be made clear and has a very hard finish. Sandracca uses alcohol, lavender oil and castor oil as it's thinner and plasticsizer to change the painting viscosity.

However this Sandracca resin pitch medium would not mix with resin pitch turpentine mediums, just as another popular medium of the time would not mix with turpentine, Cara Colla. The Paint Wars were now including mediums as well as pigment bases. Cara Colla was Egypt's wax and ammonia medium that was better suited to painting murals as it was softer, glossie, painted easily and was weather proof. This medium is erroneously sometimes called encaustic painting, when the ammonia evaporates it leaves behind only the wax, as in encaustic, which is the hot process of applying wax. The Visuvious paintings were Cara Colla not encaustic.
Pigmented wax in turpentine cakes as a media came later from the northern side of the Mediterranean.

The turpentine based media that were used in Pictura Translucida or picturatranslucida, on polished tin were before oil was added to paint. This was before Cennini, in the Dark Ages of Greece. Some of these mediums that dissolve in turpentine would also dissolve in alcohol. Wax, would not dissolve in alcohol but would dissolve in turpentine, and so was used with these pitch resin oil varnishes; Levantine Mastic, Chian Mastic, Copal and Amber. Wax imparts the flowing quality to turpentine based paints just as Castor Oil does to Sandracca paint. These were the mediums used to paint Pictura Translucida paintings on tin mirrors.

Here is an example of a Pictura Translucida transparent painting.

I really enjoy the added thrill in planning the choice of painting opaque or transparent passages of color. Whether or not I would work a passage to reflect back light if the light source had it right angle.

Here is a tip if you are going to try painting in this style on a shinny support such as Silver, zinc, tin, aluminum, chrome or silver colored plastic. A mirror will not work as the clear glass has thickness. Treat the unpainted areas as a dark color. Use Opaque white as highlights.

They did have some advantages back then, their lead whites were hand ground thicker and courser so they painted more opaque and dried faster. Also they had their favorite color, Naples Yellow in tints from a cooler green-side pale yellow-brown, to a warmer red-side. Higher calcined antimony lead colors were lightest. They also had a popular light yellow color called Lead-tin yellow.

Here are the names and brands of transparent colors I have used with great satisfaction.

Mussini Burnt Umber, Mussini Burnt Sienna, Blockx Transparent Yellow, Old Holland Indian Yellow-Brown Lake Extra, Old Holland Indian Yellow-Orange Lake Extra, Old Holland Gamboge Lake Extra, Rembrandt Rose, Quinacridone Magenta, Rembrandt Ultramarine Violet, Liquitex Dioxine Violet, Blockx Ultramarine Blue, Grumbacher Thalo Blue, Rembrandt Blue Green and Thalo Green. With these transparent colors it is possible to make the deepest darks.

Another 200 A.D medium written about in 700 A.D. medium was called "cera colla" or "cara colla", which is emulsified wax. Bees wax from the "honey mountain" in Greece, emulsified with ammonia from the city of Ammonium, in Egypt. The Egyptian's painted their walls with it, buff it up and it would radiate reflecting light, passageways would glow with this ammonia and water based wax paint. Casein can be added to this water based medium to make it hard. Other mediums he talked about were, stic-lac and borax mixed, this made an India water-based paint, gilding gums, alum, as used in dyeing, egg and wax emulsions, and the exceptional Chios resin paintings. None of these paintings survived either.

Heraclius also wrote about art at this time, he wrote about oil paints, and egg_white_plus alum, for miniature painting.